taxis = (emp, eth) a term applied to a broad class of behaviors specifiable in terms of the responses (locomotor and orientative) and of the stimuli (most often visual) controlling them. The broad class of taxes is divided into subclasses (e.g., klinotaxis, menotaxis) on the basis of (a) the physiological mechanisms that have been experimentally demonstrated or theoretically inferred, as involved in the behavior, (b) the classes of stimuli controlling them, or (c) the ontogenetic basis of the correlation. This heterogenous system of classification is of limited descriptive usefulness; it includes both empirical and theoretical concepts. Perhaps its greatest utility is to emphasize certain theoretical problems that, when approached experimentally, may lead to the elimination of the whole set.
theory = within the usage of this glossary, a set of statements about empirical concepts, relationships among them, and hypotheses postulating further relationships among them. Theories often include statements involving the empirical concepts of universes of discourse other than that in which the theory is derived. For an extensive discussion of some theories of learning, see Spence (25).
theory/behavior = a generic term for the empirical and theoretical study of behavior in experimental psychology. The label, despite its wide use, is doubly misleading. Most behavior theorists study only behavior that is dearly learned, and the major part of their effort is experimental not theoretical. A pejorative synonym is "rat" psychology, although the rat is by no means the only animal studied. Two general classes of theory are encountered. According to one class (cognitive theory), animals learn that stimulus A follows stimulus B or learn where stimulus A is in an environment. That is to say, the animal's changed behavior depends upon its acquiring something that corresponds in some (inexplicit) way to the physical situation in which it is behaving. According to the other class (S-R theory), the animal learns to give response A in the presence of stimulus A. That is to say, the animal's changed behavior depends upon its acquiring a new S-R correlation. Syn. learning theory.
theory/cognitive = a generic term for theories of learning that stress latent learning and place learning experimentally, and perception and cognition theoretically. In terms of the conditions asserted as necessary and sufficient for learning to occur, it may be characterized briefly as sensory-sensory contiguity, nonreinforcement theory. Tolmanian theory, S-S theory, arid expectancy theory are almost synonymous.
theory/contiguity = a generic term for theories of learning that consider the occurrence of a response in the presence of a stimulus as the necessary and sufficient condition for learning. One-trial conditioning, stimulus populations, and extinction via interference and habituation are key theoretical tools. Reinforcement serves only to protect a response from "unlearning" and is derived from more elementary principles. This theory has recently been stated rigorously in terms of mathematical probability theory with good results (4). In terms of the conditions asserted as necessary and sufficient for learning to occur, it may be characterized briefly as stimulus-response contiguity, nonreinforcement theory. Association theory and Guthrian theory are almost synonymous.
theory/continuity = the theory of discrimination learning which states that the animal's response is determined by the total number of responses reinforced in the presence of, or shortly after the presence of, the positive discriminative stimulus. Implicitly a part of most stimulus-response theories.
theory/drive-reduction = a generic term for those theories of learning which assert that both the occurrence of a reinforcing stimulus and contiguity in time of response with stimulus, taken together, are necessary and sufficient conditions for learning. The reinforcing stimulus must further reduce some drive or need if learning is to occur. In terms of the conditions asserted as necessary and sufficient for learning to occur, it may be characterized briefly as stimulus-response contiguity, drive-reduction theory. It is interesting to compare drive-reduction with Lorenz' "consumption of specific-action energy." Hullian theory is often used synonymously.
theory/Hullian = a generic term for either (a) drive-reduction theories of learning or (b) the whole complex of empirical and theoretical statements put forward by Hull and his school, which incorporate many concepts other than drive-reduction.
theory/noncontinuity = a theory of discrimination learning according to which the animal's behavior is not dependent upon the total number of responses reinforced in the presence of, or shortly after the presence of, the positive discriminative stimulus, but upon successively adopted "expectancies." Occurs in cognitive theory.
theory/probability = a generic name for theories of learning that use as their model for behavior the mathematics of probability. They are typically S-R theories.
theory/reinforcement = a generic name for the work of (largely) S-R theorists who stress, either experimentally or theoretically, the operation of reinforcement. Besides the Hullians, the Guthrians are also included in this group, as well as the anti-theoretical followers of Skinner. All stress reinforcement as an experimental tool but make widely differing theoretical use of it.
theory/stimulus-response (S-R) = a generic name for theories of behavior that phrase all descriptions of behavior in terms of stimulus and response, that assume the necessity for a response to occur if learning occurs, and that attempt to predict specific behavior. Almost synonymous with reinforcement theory.
T-maze = a T-shaped pathway basically similar to a runway. The starting box is at the base of the T, and goal boxes are at each end of the cross-piece. On a trial, food or water may be placed in either or both goal boxes. Discriminative stimuli are sometimes placed in the arms of the T.
T-maze/multiple = a series of T-shaped runways, with a starting box at the base of the first T, and a goal box at the end of one of the arms of the last of the series. The base of each successive T opens into the top side of one of the arms of the preceding T.
topography (of a response) = (emp, bt) the full quantitative specification of all the relevant, physically measurable dimensions of a response. If a response is stereotyped, the topographies of instances of it are very similar quantitatively to one another. This word, borrowed it seems from geography, is preferred by many to "pattern of response," which is sometimes used synonymously.
train = (emp) to subject an animal to experimental procedures such that one or more of its responses become conditioned.
transfer = (emp, bt) a name for observations (over one or more trials) made on the strength of a set of responses initially given to one set of stimuli, when similar measurements are made of the same set of responses in the presence of other sets of stimuli. Transfer may be positive or negative; the term insight is often applied to instances of positive transfer. The term transfer overlaps in its referents with stimulus generalizations; all cases of stimulus generalization are cases of transfer.
trial = (emp, bt) a single, experimentally manipulated occasion on which an instance of a specified response is elicited or may occur. This general definition is subject to qualification in particular cases. Thus, each experimenter typically reports his precise usage in applying the term. Some experimenters define a trial as the occasion when a response could occur, without respect to whether it in fact did; others use the term trial only if a response occurs when the occasion is set; and so on. The former usage is preferred.
trial and error/vicarious = (emp, bt) movement of the head of an animal back and forth at the choice point between one and another of the alternative pathways of a maze, or between me or the other door of a Lashley jumping-stand. This is one of those empirical terms that is "1oaded"; that is to say, the words used in the term have rather direct theoretical implications. See intention movement.