Definitions & Considerations

Science

While there are different definitions of science, most focus on the use of the scientific method as the key. Thus, it is the methodology or technique and not the subject matter that makes the difference. Simply, the scientific method includes logical, problem-solving steps:

1. Observation of some phenomenon
2. Description of an observed relationship between variables associated with the observed behavior by the investigator or from others via the literature review
   
3. Predicted behavior [hypothesis] of one variable based upon change in another [change in variable a is a function of change in variable b so that ...
   
4. Testing the anticipated or hypothesized behavior to see what happens
5. Analysis of the data [normally by a statistical software package like SAS]
   
6. Reporting the results or conclusions
   
7. Recommending future research.

The scientific method, to be viable, must have key attributes:

1. The description of the testing situation must be so documented that another can duplicate [replicate] what was done to see if the results are as described.
2. Results must be shared with peers so that they can question/evaluate/replicate. This is the quality control built into the model.
3. Although problem statements and questions are increasingly accepted, the heart of the method is the hypothesis which is a reasonable, limited statement of the functional relationship between variables to be tested with a reasonable sample. A model is a tested hypothesis supported by evidence. A theory is a hypothesis supported by repeated testing in a variety of situations so that the relationship is broadly applicable.
4. All three of these must be falsifiable, i.e. able to be tested and rejected if the evidence does not not support the generalization. For example, a well-tested and well-accepted theory could be rejected in the future when it is found to be limited in some notable way.

While there are a variety of acceptable research methods, experimentation is favored because it allows many variable to be controlled while a few are manipulated in a laboratory.

We may summarize by saying that science is involved in gathering objective, observable, empirical, measurable, and replicable evidence of the physical and material world. Statistics are often used to insure that the evidence is reliable [same results if done by another], valid [measured what was intended to be measured], and generalizable [applies to a reasonable number].

Science is that body of knowledge resulting from the application of the scientific method to the natural world. It is organized and tested. Because of the substantial number of people involved and the consequences of research, or failure to research, change in science is notable and that is easily seen in our immediate environment. Unlike the humanities, where much older knowledge continues to hold value, scientific knowledge often has a short life. That is seen in the fact that the article rather than the monograph is the primary outlet for scientific research results.

Given the above, is it reasonable for the social sciences to be considered "scientific"? Why?

Disciplines included under the science, technology, and medicine umbrella [stm] vary according to the beholder.  We may look at these disciplines from different perspectives. An academic discipline is a branch of knowledge accepted as a separate area by colleges and universities, usually as an academic department such as the physics department, and represented by at least one learned society and a discipline specific periodical [journal]. A typical list, such as found in one of your readings might include these:

• Astronomy
• Biology
  
• Chemistry
  
• Cosmology
• Ecology
• Geology
• Oceanography
• Paleontology
• Physics

Obviously, there are disputes and conflicts about which areas of study are disciplines rather than areas of study.

Professions also vary notably according to the source. While professions also require knowledge of a reasonably complex body of skills and knowledge, the emphasis is on best practice and sometimes on creating new tools or products to improve best practice. Allied health professionals such as nurses are a good example. STM professions are "learned" in that they require understanding of both some theory and of best practice and are often certified or licensed by the state. Medicine may be both a science and a profession depending on the orientation of those involved. Although simplistic, the distinction would be between those who are primarily research oriented and those who are primarily practice oriented.

Mathematics, "the language of science" is often not considered not to be a science because "truth" or validity is determined by proof rather than by observation and experiment. Mathematics is based upon deductive reasoning [reasoning from general principles to particular examples] while science uses inductive reasoning [inferring general principles from particular examples] based on observation and measurement.

Does this seem reasonable to you?

Pure & Applied

Distinctions are often made between pure and applied disciplines. In practice,  disciplines may be more pure than applied but it is difficult to make clean, clear distinctions. Ideally, a pure academic discipline is driven by the desire for knowledge and understanding without attempting to solve any particular human problem. Knowing more is enough.

Physics is often used as notable example of a pure science. Intellectual curiosity is the key to this type of science. Applied academic disciplines typically apply the knowledge gained from pure research and create tools or products. Engineering is often used as the most visible of the applied sciences.

Engineering and technology are associated with applied science. Some see engineering as an art [the mechanical arts] while others see it as a science. In either case, it creates new and better tools [inventions] based upon experience and current or cutting edge science. Technology involves techniques and scientists often create new technologies in order to be able to better study phenomena of interest, such as DNA, so there is some overlap and partnership here. Tools allow us to react to and change our environment, based upon study and experience.

In practice, the distinction between pure and applied is often muddled, especially since those who fund pure research are increasingly interested in applications. The lack of government and commercial interest in pure research is of growing concern since without the pure research there would be no new technology. Without pure research, innovation would likely be limited to small improvements in existing technology. In the past, the military has been a major funder of both pure and applied research.

If you were a funder, how difficult would it be to convince you to fund pure research?

Hard & Soft

Although more likely to be encountered when discussing the social science disciplines, "hard" normally refers to those sciences where research is most experimental, quantifiable, and replicable. The ability to make valid predictions based on hypotheses, models, and theses is also associated with hardness. Physics, chemistry, and geology are often considered to be hard sciences.

Since intellectual property is often of considerable value, there is some urgency to scientific research. Primary disclosure of research results is normally found in periodical articles and technical reports rather than monographs. Libraries supporting scientific research typically are article rather than monograph based. Thus, one of the characteristics of a hard discipline is primary disclosure via articles rather than monographs.

What do you see as the advantages of article rather than book length publication?

Discipline-specific, Mission-oriented, Multi-disciplinary, and Cross-Disciplinary

Traditionally, research areas or topics begin within an academic department. As they become more popular, they attract more scholars, their own scholarly society, and their own scholarly periodical. Eventually, they will have their own academic department. Information provision was originally oriented toward a specific audience whose research interests stayed well within discipline boundaries. For example, the chemical researcher's needs were met by Chemical Abstracts. Over time, more scientists recognized that major problems crossed disciplinary lines. For example, space flight required knowledge from several STM disciplines as well as from social science ones. Ecology and weather and climate are examples of research areas that cross several borders.

Different STM disciplines are more inward or more outward. If chemistry and physics increasingly overlap, then the information provider will need to provide relevant literature from both subjects, expanding the scope of collections and services. The growth of mission-oriented research [putting a person on the moon, solving environmental problems] makes it much more important for the information professional to have a multi- or cross-disciplinary orientation. While researchers are normally acute subject experts, they may not be subject experts in the literature of other disciplines and that increases the role of the information professional.

For the information professional in science, what are the opportunities and the challenges in dealing with multi-disciplinary STM research?

A Discipline Example: acoustics

Acoustics is a branch of physics that studies the properties of sound [mechanical waves in gases, liquids, and solids]. It may be a pure science or an applied one [acoustical engineering examines and remedies problems with audio engineering, noise control, and improving the acoustic environment]. Acoustics examines the production, control, transmission, reception, and effects of sound. Sound impacts our lives in many ways. Those interested in acoustics would major in physics or engineering. An example of applied research, now in mechanical engineering would be to discover what causes sound and vibration in an air conditioning unit and then how to reduce those. Such research appeals to a variety of government and commercial agencies. However, in order to do that, we must have a solid understanding of the nature of sound and its relationship to vibration and movement.

Study may be theoretical or practical. Branches include:

• Acoustical oceanography [underwater acoustics]
  
• Acoustics--measurement and instrumentation
  
• Aero-acoustics
• Animal acoustics
  
• Architectural acoustics
• Bioacoustics
• Biomedical acoustics
• Engineering acoustics
  
• Environmental noise
• Musical acoustics
• Noise
• Psychoacoustics  and physiological acoustics [hearing, perception]
  
• Physical acoustics [materials]
• Structural and vibration acoustics
  
• Thermo acoustics
• Transduction [sound via speakers]
• Ultrasonics [high frequency acoustics]

A good introduction is found at http://www.acoustics.org. The Acoustical Society of America is the leading U.S. professional organization.

Consider how the discipline/profession is organized:

• The place where the phenomena is studied [under water, in the sky]
• Tools to be used in observation and measurement
• Subject [animals, primates, humans]
• Specific application [architecture, biomedicine, engineering, music, materials]
• Specific relationships [heat, speaker design, high frequencies].

Could one study library acoustics? How might you do that? Would it be pure or applied? Discipline specific or interdisciplinary?