CHAPTER 7.-HEAD COACH AND KEY PEOPLE AND ORGANIZATIONS INSIDE THE SPORTS COMMUNITY
"Tell me, dear, how did your day go?"
"I don't know. Some days it seems like everyone wants a piece of my hide. The first thing this morning the AD calls me with a request to double check on illegal booster contacts with the kids. No sooner do I get off the phone that in walks the SID and she wants to set up an afternoon appointment for photographs. We decided on Tuesday afternoon. I had to call Dr. George because he told one of the swimmers to stay out of the water for 10 days due to a high white cell count. The count should be high; the kids have been averaging 16000 to 18000 meters a day this week. The trainer called with a list of swimmers who reported with complaints of sore shoulders. The academic advisor phoned to warn me that three of my best kids are cutting classes in English and are depending on boyfriends to take notes. The secretary wants to take off next week. Campus security wants to interview the gals concerning the break-in to the team room and rifling of the lockers. ASCA send a letter for dues. At least the NCAA and parents haven't called today."
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The coach is a social actor involved in a variety of social relationships. These relationships involve not only individuals inside the sport community, but those outside of it as well.
Head coach and key people
Athletic department personnel.-Within the sport community the coach's role definitions and performances are examined in interaction with the individuals inside the athletic department and outside of it. Those inside include the athletic director, sports information representatives, team physician, trainer, aquatics director, academic advisor, secretarial and janitorial staff, representatives from food and housing services, and campus security.
1. Athletic Director.-Membership in the sports community does not guarantee general knowledge across all sports. Interests tend to be limited to a specific sport or a few sports. Athletic directors often are presumed to be conversant about all sports. Often, however, an AD has only coached in one particular sport, so while serving as the AD must develop an understanding of and appreciation for the problems faced by coaches in other sports. The coaches often have to spend time in making sure that an open style of communication is fostered between themselves and the AD. Coaches who presume that ADs are familiar with problems confronted in administering a swimming program--when they are not--will meet with frustration. Coaches will presume messages have been sent and understood, although clarity has yet to be achieved. The rationale for requests may be patently obvious to coaches, yet a mystery to the AD.
An assessment of how well-informed the AD is regarding swimming can be gleaned from conversations held during the interview process and after joining the staff. Just as the AD is sensitive to the coach's use of language when discussing coaching and sport, the coach must listen carefully to the vocabulary used by the AD when discussing the goals and the structure of the swimming program. If the AD invokes the proper vocabulary, conveys a rudimentary knowledge of the organizational needs of swimming programs, and an openness to learn, then the conversations between coach and AD will be more productive than in a situation where the AD has a favorite sport or combination of sports and is reticent to master new spheres of knowledge. Answers by the AD to the coach's questions will contribute to an understanding of the coach's job description, the nature of interaction expected between AD and coach, the arrangement of responsibilities within the athletic department, and the overall place of athletics and swimming within the college or university.
The head coach probably will not appreciate the full range of responsibilities that an AD must face. The head coach tends to become "nearsighted," focusing on the needs of the swimming program to the exclusion of other teams and the athletic department in general. It is mandatory that the head coach be open and try to comprehend the pressures that face the AD, particularly as each sport hosts its events during the course of the season. It is not unusual for the AD at some point during the year to oversee the hosting of one, two, or possibly three conference championships. Add to these duties the tasks of directing a job search for a coaching vacancy, deliberating over disciplinary actions for athletes on various squads, serving on university committees, attending NCAA meetings, and preparing the annual budget, and then one begins to develop a feel for the pressures exerted on the AD's time and energy-level.
The nature of the interaction between AD and coach is fixed by the formal constraints of the jobs, not personalities. A coach should remember that job tenure is linked to performance, not friendship. An AD is the caretaker of the entire athletic department. Either a coach or a program may be expendable, if circumstances warrant. Job security and respect accrue based on one's record of achievement. Where a proven record exists, there is greater tolerance for the "off" year. Latitude is permitted when it is necessary to rebuild. Where no history of success has been established there is a tendency to remove the coach and begin anew. Coaches should recognize that the "fastest gun" in the athletic department is always the AD.
2. Sports information office and media.-More often than not exchanges between swimming team staff and media are limited to the head coach. Other staff members may be interviewed if a request is cleared with the head coach. In most universities and colleges with highly competitive programs, there is a sports information director(SID) or a member of the athletic department staff who deals with the media on a regular basis.
At the beginning of every season, each athlete and member of the coaching staff is asked to fill out a questionnaire providing biographical data, information on sports career--outstanding accomplishments (member of the Olympic team, national team), outstanding performances (world, national, conference, or school record), personal best performances for events swum in meters and yards, honors received--hobbies, major, current interests, and reasons for attending the institution. Any time a member of the media wishes to interview an athlete or coach, the sports information director or representative can reach into the file and extract information to be used as "color" in supplementing the information obtained in the interview. At the beginning of each season, the sports information office requests that a practice session be devoted to taking photographs for the SID's office. Individual portraits (full-length and head shot), class group shots, team shots, and some action shots are snapped. Two series of photos are typically run. First, shots are taken in team meet "warmups." Second, shots are taken while athletes are dressed up--women in dresses and men in suits. These photographs are used throughout the year. They are part of the team promotional pamphlet used for recruiting, which is usually made available at meets on the media display table. Photos also are sent to the newspaper and television when feature stories, exclusives, or color spots are run.
Institutions with a sports information office prefer to have requests for interviews, either with a coach or an athlete, channeled through and cleared by the SI office. Foreknowledge of interviews prevents surprises from appearing in the press--such as charges of racism, brutality, or sexual harassment; reports of personal conflicts, claims of grade fixing; and, charges of illegal booster gifts.
Foreknowledge permits the SID to work with the coaching staff to emphasize particular themes, events, or personalities that the athletic department may be highlighting in a given season or year. For instance, football may push a player for the Heisman trophy award; basketball may be eyeing a spot with the Final Four; and swimming may have a few former Olympians. Each program should be touted to enhance its visibility and the overall reputation of the athletic department.
In some schools, athletic departments conduct seminars and videotape practice press interviews to teach staff and athletes how to respond to questions in order to present themselves and the institution in the most favorable possible light. Helpful comments on posture, speech patterns to avoid, and use of proper diction and syntax go a long way to upgrade the image of the coach and the athlete with the television audience. Nothing is worse for the image of the program than inarticulate, camera-shy coaches and athletes.
Most typically, media representatives want to talk with the coach at the beginning of the season. They want to find out what kinds of performances are anticipated from the team and from key individuals; what regular season meets may be of interest (rivalries); what invitational, national, and international meets may be scheduled for the team; or what the possible trips are for elite performers. When the program has an athlete, either with extraordinary ability or an unusual background, this person becomes an obvious choice for a "color spot" on the local sports news.
The media also is receptive to reports on meet results. The SID or SI representative may be assigned to phone in the results of meets to various newspapers and television stations that serve an audience with an interest in the school. Each newspaper has a sports desk with a specific individual assigned to cover designated sports. Similarly, television stations have individuals assigned to particular sports. In some cases the newspaper will pay a nominal fee to the coach or the athletic department for calling in results of athletic contests. Most newspapers in recent years have adopted a sports summary page that includes results of games, track and field meets, swim meets, auto races, and so forth.
If the sports information office does not provide a representative to cover swimming, then the responsibility for contacting the media usually falls on the coach. The head coach may call in the results or delegate the responsibility to an assistant coach or manager. Whoever calls should ask what format is used to report the meet results so that they are easy to transcribe during dictation. The person assigned to call in the meet results should keep a list of phone numbers and names for each of the media representatives to be contacted. After the results have been dictated and transcribed, the desk person often asks for comments on the team's performance or on some outstanding feat. The head coach should decide before talking to the media which aspects of the meet or team's performance wishes to highlight. These responses often appear as unedited copy on the sports page.
If the head coach wants coverage for the team's activities, then the coach should take time to develop a working relationship with representatives of the local television and newspapers. When sportswriters cover an event, the coach should take time to talk with them. The coach should find out what kinds of stories the editors like to print, broadcast, or televise. The coach should learn what kinds of statements can be made that are quotable in a favorable light, and what kinds of statements make "good copy" at the expense of the athlete, the coach, or the institution. The coach should always practice "newsthink," pre-censoring what is said to avoid surprises.
In any sport there are numerous horror stories of items that appeared in print or on the air in which statements were taken out of context, distorted, or misquoted. Inevitably such a story either embarrasses a coach, team, athlete, or administrator; repercussions always prove to be most unpleasant. Efforts to exact a retraction or clarification only compound the problem. In some cases the story maligns the rival with the unfortunate consequence of "psyching them" for the "big game" and resulting in one's own defeat. Although fixing a causal connection between the appearance of media story and defeat is dicey, the association presumably occurs enough times to warrant caution when dealing with the press.(1)
Some swim coaches like to deal with the media directly rather than letting sports information representatives file stories. They feel that the press is more likely to give priority to the money-making sports like football, basketball, baseball, and hockey. To counteract this tendency the coach acts as an advocate for the program. Assertiveness increases the likelihood of swimming coverage. The coach must contact the press with sufficient advance time to allow editors to schedule a release. Even if an interview is on file, an editor faced with a deadline and a crowded sports schedule, if forced to choose between a money-making sport and swimming, will not pick swimming.
If an event or story is important and the coach wants to get adequate coverage, one method is to divide the story into parts and submit multiple releases. The coach should time the releases to build interest in the event starting three to four weeks ahead of time (Boesch 1977: 19-31).
One way to ensure coverage of swimming is to get the local newspaper to select an all-conference swimming and diving team for each year. A first, second, or honorable mention team and the top swimming and diving coaches for the year can be picked by either the sportswriters or voted on by the coaches. This strategy accomplishes at least two purposes. First, it honors the outstanding performances of coaches and athletes. Second, it provides the newspaper with materials to use in anticipation of the conference meet each year by highlighting returning athletes and comparing the present generation of athletes with past generations. Any items that can be pulled from morgue files will make the sportswriter's job easier when covering swimming.
The problems confronted in dealing with the local press often are multiplied when dealing with a campus newspaper. Count the inches devoted to swimming, a year-round sport, versus a major sport, and the pattern of bias found in the local press is repeated. Some coaches who have swimmers who are dating campus newspaper personnel have exploited this opportunity to gain coverage. (Incidentally, women's sports generally receive less coverage than men's sports. Women's coaches have to fight the double battle of being mentors in a minor sport and victims of sexism.)
A head coach who wants to increase the amount of coverage and visibility for swimming sometimes has to add elements of "display" to meets to stimulate spectator interest and attendance (Stone 1955). (See discussion on student booster groups at The University of Tennessee.)
The coach, when meeting with media representatives, should be sensitive to the different perspectives from which each operates. The coach's orientation focuses on doing what is best for the performance of the team, conducting a smoothly-run meet and minimizing any expenditures of energy by the athletes. The media people's orientation is promotion, entertainment, fan appeal, and excitement and sales--in a word, marketability. (For a list of factors on which coaches and promotional representatives differ, see Freas 1980: 155-156.)
Most importantly, when the SID or SI representative and personnel from the local media do a good job of reporting, the coach should call them and thank them for their assistance. Let them know their coverage increased interest in or attendance at the event or meet.
3. Physician.-The head coach may be fortunate to have a team physician who has specialized in sportsmedicine, or who by virtue of prolonged association with the athletic program, has developed an understanding of many of the problems confronted when trying to keep athletes in training and ready for competition. Perhaps a physician is not familiar with the sport-specific side effects resulting from intensive training to increase aerobic and anaerobic capacities. For instance, heavy doses of mileage may lead to tissue damage which in turn may cause elevated white blood cell counts. An above normal white blood cell count is one of the symptoms associated with exhaustion and mononucleosis often found among college patients. Swimmers may also suffer shoulder and knee injuries given the highly repetitive nature of arm and leg movement in training. Swimmers may develop eye, skin, and teeth problems due to long exposure to chlorinated water. Failure of the physician to recognize these symptoms leads the coach to question the physician's expertise. Coaches dislike it when the physician prescribes rest for a period that is perceived by the coach as "too long." Although it is aggravating to lose swimmers from training sessions or from competition when injuries occur, to lose them due to an alleged misdiagnosis is frustrating. Any time the coach has a team that is short-handed, whether in practice or a meet, it is frustrating and increases stress.
Coaches, in order to develop an open and supporting relationship with the team physician, may engage in a professional exchange of information on research findings in sports medicine and discuss their respective role demands in working with athletes. Journals in medicine, physical education and fitness, and general health should be checked regularly for items of interest. Offprints or photo copies of current articles should be circulated among members of the medical staff, training staff, and coaching staff.(2)
4. Trainer.-At the beginning of each year, the trainer meets with the team to review policies on reporting and treatment of injuries, procedures to follow when involved in therapy, and guidelines covering drug tests. Typically, injuries and complaints are first screened by the trainer. In cases where the symptoms warrant, the trainer will arrange an appointment with the physician. Should the case require a trip to the emergency room, arrangements will be made. In all cases the trainer checks with the coach to report on the status of the athlete. A written statement is shown to the coach designating treatment and therapy, is returned to the trainer, and filed. Athletes who are injured and for whom a recuperative therapy is prescribed are expected to meet with the trainer and follow that regimen. Failure to do so is grounds for disciplinary action.(3)
Schools' policies on informing athletes of the procedures followed in testing for NCAA banned drugs vary. When the tests are administered (as part of pre-season physical, randomly, before contests, or when performances suggest a possible problem) also differ across institutions. Which tests are run (testing for the complete spectrum of NCAA banned drugs, recreational drugs, or selected drugs) depend on the sport and vary by program. How the results are handled (as a medical report or a disciplinary problem) also differ. The courses of action taken when positive results are obtained (probation, suspension, loss of privileges or scholarship, dismissal from the team or school) show variation by programs. Whatever the procedures are for the institution, all parties concerned must have a clear and complete knowledge of them.
Over the years, the coach learns to expect an increase in physical complaints at certain points in the academic calendar and the season. As the first wave of examinations, term papers, and reports come due, there are complaints of stomach upset, sore throats, low-grade fevers, and headaches. This same pattern is repeated during the week of final exams. Similarly, as the pressure of training is increased (moving from one practice to two practices per day) the complaints of sore shoulders, knees, backs, and so forth crop up. During peak periods of intensive training, symptoms associated with physical exhaustion and fatigue also are reported. All complaints must be checked. During these periods the trainer and coach get to know one another very well. Athletes who repeatedly claim to have symptoms simply may not be able to cope with stress. Some may worry about grades more than swimming, thus try to avoid swimming in order to study. A few may be hypochondriacs(4) or malingerers.
Two problems that often occur on women's swimming teams, whether age-group, high school, or college, are bulimia and anorexia nervosa. Coaches often encourage swimmers and divers to avoid excessive body fat and to try to increase muscle. Among athletes with strong achievement motivations, some often eschew appropriate nutritional habits and exercise as acceptable means for weight loss, but resort to inappropriate methods. Coaches must not only learn to recognize the clinical symptoms and behavioral clues associated with these disorders but also must refer the athletes to the appropriate professionals for help (Dummer et al. 1986).
5. Aquatics Director.-In many schools the head coach is responsible for both the men's and women's programs and is also the Aquatics Director. In this situation the coach has the advantage of fixing the agenda for practices and meets with a minimum of fuss. But when the coach does not operate in a joint capacity, an Aquatics Director schedules pool time, use of equipment, and physical plant. The head coach must recognize the priorities given to the various uses of facilities for instruction, students and faculty recreation, community programs, and competitive swimming. The relative mix of pressures in scheduling, as well as any favoritism of men over women and vice versa, establishes the boundaries within which requests may be made. Whenever a site is open for multiple uses, the head coach has to play the dual role of advocate and negotiator in order to protect the interests of his/her program. Incidentally, one of the strategies administrators may employ either to support or constrain the power of the head coach is to redefine who has the ultimate responsibility for scheduling the use of facilities.(5)
6. Academic Advisor.-In recent years many athletic departments or schools have created the position of academic advisor to ensure the individual is a student as well as an athlete. The creation of this position is a reaction by administrators, faculty, and ADs to the charges of institutional exploitation of athletes without the concomitant concern for the athlete's academic development and general well-being in life after sport. Typically advisors check athletes' schedules; help with registration; line up tutors for athletes with problems; handle the ordering of athletic department books to loan students during the quarter; oversee study hall, keep academic files on grades, declared major, and progress in major; double check the athlete's eligibility under school, conference, and/or NCAA rules; and check with faculty on athletes' attendance, performance, and needs.
Where such a position is available, the head coach needs to keep abreast of services provided by the advisor and the schedule of activities required of student-athletes. Coaches react variously to academic advisors. If the AD strongly backs academics, then the advisor is taken seriously. If the advisor is a graduate assistant and the position turns over every two years, then the coach who has been in the institution for some time probably feels more knowledgeable than the advisor and treats the position lightly. Whether the coach supports the position becomes a matter of whim. The academic background of the athletes also affects the coach's reaction to the position. Where athletes are strong academically and are able to take responsibility for planning their own curricula, the coach will be less sympathetic to the role of the advisor and rely less on the service. Where there are academic problems, a relationship between coach and academic advisor often is strengthened. In short, the nature of the ties is set by the tone of the institution, the AD, and the whims of the coach (see Monaghan 1955: 37 & 39).
7. Secretarial staff.-Coaches rely directly on departmental secretaries for assistance and support in handling mail, messages, processing budget requests, and a variety of other activities necessary for the survival of the program. If the head coach or assistant coaches who interact with the secretarial staff create bad feelings, priorities given to swimming program projects by the secretarial staff may be subtly altered. Information needed from secretaries to complete tasks accurately and on time may not be volunteered, but extracted only by direct questioning (difficult if one the coach is new or unfamiliar with the administrative procedures of an institution). Conversely, when good relationships exist between the coaching staff and the support staff, the latter's actions are valuable in organizing and expediting athletic department functions and competitive events.
8. Janitorial staff.-The head coach and the assistant coaches also need to develop good working relationships with the janitorial staff. Adjustments in use of the pool--both practice time and lane use--may occasionally be required in order to clean the pool and install, replace, or fix equipment. Civility and an occasional "coffee and doughnut" run early in the morning often ensure that requests for service will be cheerfully completed.
The head coach who fails to understand that work slow-downs, "lost" job requests, and disclaimers of tasks falling outside of the job description, are strategies easily used in retaliation for snubs or discourtesies. An insensitive coach may wait a long time before work is done.
9. Food services and student housing.-How room and board are administered differs from campus to campus. Generally, at the beginning of each academic year all students on campus are expected to inform the food services program whether they intend to participate in the meal plan contract program or not. Those swimmers who participate must indicate which contract (how many meals per week) they intend to sign. Scholarship swimmers who receive food as part or all of their scholarship allocation must inform the coach of their intentions. Similarly, students who intend to live in university housing are expected to inform housing program officials and sign contacts.
Requests for roommates must be submitted when housing contracts are signed. Again, scholarship athletes who receive room must confirm rooming assignments so that the coach can account for total scholarships assigned. The head coach should know which officials in each of these offices to contact should questions arise over meal and housing contracts.
Occasionally the head coach may need to make use of university food services to provide foods for various social gatherings. The coach should learn the procedures for ordering meals, for making arrangements for setting up venues where meals will be served, and for billing payment of services.
10. Campus security.-From time to time it is necessary to contact campus security personnel to arrange for parking passes for parents of swimmers, visitors, meet officials, visiting teams, and dignitaries. The head coach should know which member of the campus police force is in charge of handling parking privileges.
Sometimes security is needed to prevent gate crashers from entering a competition site without proper identification. The head coach may have to set up a system of identification and passes for admission to events by coaches, competitors, press, and spectators. These procedures must be coordinated with the AD, SID, and campus security.
It is a good policy to warn visitors and incoming teams that college campuses are not havens, free from crime. Visiting coaches should be forewarned that they are responsible for team equipment, towels, banners, and so forth. Should theft occur (team warmup suits and banners are prime targets), theft reports need to be filed and the appropriate authorities informed. Whenever an event is scheduled, a member of the coaching staff should be sure to notify the campus police well in advance so they can schedule personnel to cover the venue.
Other insiders within the sports community.-Individuals outside the athletic department who are members of the sports community but with whom the coach must interact include other coaches and the adult and student boosters and fans.
1. Other coaches.-History and personality shape the relationships between rival coaches. A coach who is amiable and easy-going, who acts as a gracious host when others visit, and who maintains control with dignity, probably will easily establish rapport with other coaches. Conversely, a coach who is driven by the desire to win at all costs, or who engages in artifices calculated to upset competitors and negatively affect performance, who is egotistically after rankings will be held at some distance by other coaches.
A coach's style often influences meet strategies. A coach with a superior team competing against another coach with a good reputation may decide to "hold back" instead of running up the score. The coach may let swimmers compete in off-events or designate certain swimmers as exhibition (and thus not score). Both actions tend to keep the score down.
Conversely, a coach competing against another targeted for retribution for previous grievances, given the opportunity will allow the score to become lopsided. Numerous strategies will be tried over the years to garner those "sweet victories of retribution." Coaches who have been active for a number of years, experiencing good years with top talent and lean years with little, have diaries filled with grievances, real or imagined, to redress. In some cases the feelings are so strongly held that coaches refuse to schedule one another, and only compete at conference championships or NCAA meets. Relationships between antagonists tend to be formal and businesslike.
Coaches differ in their willingness to pass on their knowledge and insights to others. Some coaches are secretive, claiming they learned their lessons without any guidance. They claim that others should do the same. "After all, if I pass secrets on to others, they only will be used against me."
Some coaches are open and freely share their knowledge. They see the profession as growing and maturing with refinement of principles and techniques. "If I can be of benefit to someone, all are enriched."
How secretive or altruistic the coach often depends on whether the questioner is an assistant or an outsider. Coaches generally view loyalty as an extremely important trait. Many errors of omission and commission will be tolerated, but failure to support the coach--either by withholding support, adopting a neutral stance on issues, or participating in a "palace revolution"--are grounds for dismissal.
Assistant coaches must take heed that evaluations of performance and letters of recommendation play an important part in moving to another job. After all, assistant coaches should recognize that their professional future may be tied to their ability to network or use the head coach's network. (The term means (1) the development of social bonds among individuals who share common or like interests; and (2) the use of social ties to obtain some social end.) In any job an individual builds a number of contacts, acquaintances, and friendships. How individuals are perceived by their contacts(6) may shape their ability to move from one job to another. An assistant who fosters dissention no doubt will get a poor recommendation.
2. Adult boosters and fans.-Over the years the NCAA, partly at the prompting of coaches and partly at the request of ADs, has moved increasingly to circumscribe the activities of boosters interacting with athletes. (For a definition of booster consult the NCAA Manual 1985-86: 17-18.) Conversations with boosters inevitably turn back to the "good old" days when the NCAA took less interest in the affairs of boosters, or at least allowed greater latitude in their actions. Under the old regime, boosters say they could get to know the coaches, athletes, and support staff of the various sports programs better. They contend that booster-sponsored activities--such as setting up foster parents for athletes, taking athletes out for birthdays, and allowing athletes to visit in their homes--provided a social support system for the athletes that has since been stripped away. They believe that these activities provided the athletes with social ties to replace social bonds severed when the athletes moved away from home. They claim they provided a social network--beyond the school and team environment--athletes to turn to when problems arose with studies, faculty, friends, or the coaches. They believe that these kinds of activities kept a number of athletes in school who might have dropped out without such third party social support. They argue that the benefits of such a system far outweighed any abuses that might have operated.
Boosters also claim that it is more fun to follow the teams when you know the athletes personally rather than see them as merely names on a roster. Similarly, it is easier to support a program when you know the coaching staff and they know you. Such ties develop a network of potential helpers when a special event is hosted by a program or the athletic department. Severing of ties between players and boosters reduces the feelings of intimacy and identification that occur.(7) The moves by the NCAA to reduce the involvement of boosters (for fear of providing illegal inducements to athletes to attend an institution, or providing illegal benefits not available to other students, thus corrupting the sport) has unfortunately removed much of the sociability from college sport.
If the effort originated to reduce the likelihood of corruption bred by excessive favoritism, the move has at best been only marginally successful. People who are going to engage in activities such as gift giving or providing services to athletes will do so whether or not the actions are deemed illegal.
Further, by stripping away sociability, any norms of equity that might have governed gift giving in friendship relationships, such as the amount of the value of the gift, have been eliminated. The moral claims of friendship, which would have kept many excesses in check, have been removed by turning control and regulatory powers over to people outside of the relationship. As athletes become more distant from boosters, they become more like objects. Athletes are "things" to take care of like machine parts in order to keep the machine operating smoothly. The emphasis is on performance as product rather performance of individuals as people. Given this mentality, it is easy to offer goods and services to athletes: "You pay your money, you get results." Clearly either system has its excesses, but under the current set of rules, benefits are perhaps justified more readily as a form of economic exchange; conversely, under the former rules, a booster's gifts were viewed at best as acts of friendship, or perhaps as acts of paternalism.
Under current NCAA regulations, athletes and boosters, as well as coaches, may gather after contests under the mantle of potluck dinners, awards banquets, and fund-raising meetings governed by the institution. The nature of such contacts needs to be cleared by the AD or NCAA representative to ensure no violations occur. In the past contacts usually were aboveboard. However, given the stringency of NCAA regulations governing booster-athlete contacts and the fear of potentially violating rules, many boosters who used to interact with athletes now limit contacts to approved meetings, or have given up trying to contact the athletes. A few boosters continue to maintain the same old practices until they are caught. The institution attempts to protect itself against such violations, warning coaches to oversee the activities of their athletes--encouraging them to report contacts outside the regulations and limit the number of contacts with boosters. Where friendships are involved, it is difficult to legislate their elimination. The coach to protect against charges of failing to oversee the actions of athletes, should keep a file on athlete-booster interactions. In cases with even a hint of impropriety, the coach should report the incident to the AD and keep a summary on file. Where a violation occurs and involves gift giving, the institution often moves to identify the offenders, to report the case to the NCAA, and if necessary, to sever formal ties between the institution and the booster.
3. Student boosters.-In many of the larger athletic programs there is a student booster organization. It is comprised of students, non-athletes who assist with team functions--such as running swim meets, hosting recruits, assisting with clerical work, record keeping, and "hyping" the program among the student body (Bussard 1972; Armistead 1980). Some coaches set up voluntary support groups to help officiate at meets--all males for the women's team and all females for the men's team. Often these groups have colorful, eye-catching, and symbolic uniforms. For instance, Ray Bussard, Head Men's Coach at The University of Tennessee: (1) built a large wooden orange "T" through which swimmers enter before each meet; (2) instituted a student booster club called the "Timettes" of females--earlier clad in boots, cowboy hats, and orange and white uniforms, and more recently attired in orange blouses and skirts with white socks and sneakers--who serve as timers, finish judges, and assist with the scoring at the diving table; (3) started the team tradition of wearing coonskin caps, Davy Crockett style; and (4) presented the colors--held by two bikini-clad coeds in a canoe afloat in the diving well at the start of the meet (Bussard 1972).
In some schools the booster organization assists in all sports. In other schools each sport must develop its own booster organization, or the men's and the women's teams must build separate organizations. It is far more efficient to create an infra-structure to which all sports can turn for assistance, with various sub-sets of individuals identified as interested in particular teams.
In schools with a Greek system--fraternities and sororities--personnel can frequently be solicited to assist with sporting events. Various Greek memberships receive credits from the national headquarters for performing such campus service activities. If a ROTC program is available, representatives from the corp may serve, providing that they can wear a uniform or T-shirt designating organizational affiliation. Any organization that espouses public service and wants visibility for its efforts should be contacted and included as part of the support system for the program.
Coaches need to court both adult and student boosters. The coach should attend their functions, be willing to chat with them, answer questions on the status of athletes, the progress of the program, future prospects, and so forth. Boosters form the backbone of the fund-raising efforts. Booster club organizations are one of the major sources of money for the development fund in an athletic department's budget. Boosters are regularly solicited by the fund-raising officer or development office representative, the AD, or particular coach making a pitch for money. These funds are necessary for purchases of large equipment-- such as a electronic timing system, personal computer and computer programs to run meets, electronic scoreboards, public address system, Nautilus-type equipment, and repairs to the pool and facilities, to name but a few. In some cases if the team is asked to attend an invitational meet or individuals are invited to represent the school at special functions, boosters will donate funds to the athletic department earmarked for particular activities. Annual award banquets and athletes' awards can be sponsored through this system of earmarking gifts. A systematic effort is required to build a broadly-based audience that supports the athletic department's programs through attendance at events, assistance with hosting events, and donating funds. Any efforts that the coach makes to build a support network will return dividends many fold.
4. Other teams on campus.-A head coach should not forget to support other teams in the athletic department. Once the athletes appear on campus and the daily grind of training, classes, and administrative trivia starts, it is very easy for a coach to overlook other sports. To ensure a sense of camaraderie with other teams, the coaches, swimmers, and divers should attend games en masse, forming their own cheering section. It builds team spirit and department spirit. When teams are training over vacation breaks--Christmas and Spring, and very few students are in town-- attending each others' contests ensures some support rather than none. When other teams are out of season and the coach needs help to host and produce an event, the groundwork has been laid for possible assistance.
5. Parents.-One of the more salient social relationships that a head coach must foster is with parents of swimmers. This relationship may begin when the swimmer first joins a program as an age-grouper. Parents are concerned with the children's well-being, more especially their physical development and social and psychological growth. Not only do they want their son or daughter to learn swimming skills and reach a high level of physical conditioning, they also want the son or daughter to learn a positive attitude toward sport and competition, develop a sense of self-worth, and maintain a balance between swimming, studies, and a social life. The coach must form an understanding of how each of these issues is defined by the parents and how the parents interact with the child. Once the parents' motives and actions are understood, the coach is better able to place the swimmers' action within a broader context and more easily and accurately interpret their behavior.
Similarly, the coach is better able to focus on those kinds of behaviors and problems about which the parents are particularly anxious, and must be kept informed. It is important for the coach to establish a strong bond of communication with the parents in order to elicit their support. If the parents are aware of the coach's concern for the well-being of the athlete, and are certain that the coach understands the athlete's personality, and is able to address the child's strengths and weaknesses, then the parents will be more likely to rely on the coach's judgment. In effect, the parents will feel comfortable turning their son or daughter over to a coach concerned with the best interests of the child. The coach to some extent acts as a surrogate parent.
If this kind of trust is established between coach and parent, when the child faces problems in dealing with the coach and turns to mom and dad for support, the coach usually can depend on the parents to support his/her judgment. Without the parents' support, the coach faces potential problems every time an athlete turns to them. Parents who do not support a coach can easily be persuaded to contact the athletic director or other administrators in order to protect their child's interests.
In some cases establishing a solid relationship between coach and parents may begin during the recruiting process. It is important to clearly establish program goals, philosophy of coaching, and how the program serves the physical, social, and psychological needs of the athlete. The parents' support is mandatory, if the coach expects the athlete to select the school in the first place. The community of swimming parents is a tightly knit, network. If the coach develops rapport with parents, they will freely endorse the program. Conversely, without parents' support, building a stable program is difficult.
Head coach and key organizations
For the most part, coaches attempt to adhere to rules promulgated by their conference, NCAA, and institutions.
Ties with the conference.-Most conferences at some point in the year provide an opportunity for coaches in a sport to convene in order to discuss common problems. The topics may cover such items as selecting sites for conference championships, creating of rules beyond those specified by the NCAA for the conduct of championship and dual meets, establishing parameters for the number of dual or triangle meets to be held among conference members, setting up mechanisms for speeding the flow of information between conference coaches on meet results among common opponents and each other, and obtaining more extensive and more frequent media coverage for the sport. Where there are problems in interpreting the rules, coaches seek to iron out differences, enact new rules, or at least generate agreements which guide the conduct of coaches. Where actions are required by ADs or presidents of schools, motions carried by the coaches are submitted for approval. In general, coaches' meetings provide an opportunity to discuss ways in which the sport may be improved as well as consolidate the position of the sport with the public and with the conference schools.
It is important for new coaches in the conference to participate in these sessions in order to develop an understanding of how the history of interpersonal relationships between coaches shapes conference schedules, rules, and suggested modifications in procedures. Often the differences in philosophy, the animosities, and the rivalries between coaches get played out in the actions proposed, debated, and enacted. Actions proposed often reflect attempts by a coach to gain advantage over certain opponents. Conversely, coaches sometimes band together to bring a recalcitrant member into line. Assistant coaches, as part of their apprenticeship, should be encouraged to attend and learn.
Getting along with the conference office is usually a straightforward task. Officials are available to inform the coaches on: conference policy and rules; the relative responsibilities of coaches in the reporting of information to the conference office--such as submitting eligibility lists and copies of budgets for athletic events conducted under the aegis of conference sponsorship; and the handling of requests for trophies. Any time there are questions on policy matters or procedures, coaches can contact the office, usually by phone, and obtain answers. As a matter of form, once a coach obtains a clarification on a policy or rule interpretation it should be verified by a letter which is kept it on file.
Ties with the NCAA.-Getting along with the NCAA office is more bothersome. Coaches have to be particularly sensitive to NCAA rules and regulations. These are sufficiently numerous, and in many instances so cumbersome to administer, that care is warranted if one wants to run a clean shop.
Each year an updated NCAA Manual is given to member coaches and a subscription to NCAA News is sent to member coaches. The Manual contains a constitution, by-laws, and cases with questions and answers to guide the reader in interpreting regulations. In the NCAA News one of the sections reports on rule interpretations on cases that have been handled by the NCAA office. These interpretations are clipped and placed in the Manual in the appropriate section. Given the ever increasing body of interpretations, it is important for coaches to stay abreast of the rules and changing nature of interpretations. Coaches should recognize that if they operate on the assumption that the rules are based on common sense, or on a sense of fair play and honesty, they no doubt will commit a rule violation.
The two areas where violations of NCAA rules more frequently occur involve (1) recruiting and (2) providing athletes illegal benefits not normally extended to other students. If a coach wishes to avoid problems, the standard practice is to talk to the other experienced coaches in the athletic department and find out what they do. If qualms still exist, the coach should check with the AD or the NCAA representative. In some cases the school encourages the coach to contact the legislative service staff for an interpretation.
Sometimes coaches may violate the rules unwittingly and self-report the incident to the institution. Still other coaches religiously conform to the rules.
Coaches who know of a rule violation more likely than not will file a report and notify their AD of it. A file is then kept at the institution. Coaches generally are reluctant to self-report an action to the NCAA office. They are most reluctant to report other coaches for violations. The typical strategies are to ignore the violations, ask the other coach to desist, or in severe cases ask the other coach to self-report. In those cases where a coach has reported violations of others, there is a sentiment that, although the action was ethically necessary, they would be most hesitant to have to repeat the experience.
Ties with the ASCA.-Coaches, as part of their professional development, should join the ASCA and keep abreast of the professional literature that is disseminated to its membership. The coach who has a penchant for professing personal views in print should contribute comments and articles to the various organs available to the profession. Some coaches depict the emergence of Swimming World and Junior Swimmer as one of the most noteworthy efforts to promote the professionalism within the swimming community. Despite the reluctance, if not fear of many people to write, teaching others remains a professional goal and coaches should recognize that one article in Swimming World and Junior Swimmer reaches a wider audience than a single coach could teach in many years.
The coach should attend the annual World Clinic meetings in order to keep informed of new techniques, new ideas on organization, motivation, training, nutrition, and so forth. Participation also provides an opportunity for the coach to establish and maintain ties with others in the coaching community.
If affordable, the coach should join professional organizations in other countries to keep abreast of international swimming. It certainly helps avoid the typical American tendency toward parochialism which is occasionally demonstrated at the World Games and the Olympics.
Summary
--The head coach lives in a social world of many relationships with people inside the athletic department, with people on campus, and with people off campus. Many of the social relationships involve people inside and outside the world of sport.
Another part of the coach's social world involves ties with officials in the conference, with NCAA officials, and with other coaches who are part of the ASCA.
REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. List the names and positions of each person in the athletic department of your alma mater, current school, or a school you know well, with whom the swim coach must interact.
2. For the same school find out what the policies of the athletic department are on: coach and athlete contacts with the media; reporting and treatment of illnesses and injuries; drug testing and drug violations; handling academic counseling; and working with booster organizations.
3. Talk with a coach and find out the kinds of rivalries that exist between coaches and how these influence meet scheduling and preparation.
4. Review the discussion of leadership styles in Chapter 5 and then describe which approach you would use in dealing with each of the parties discussed in this chapter.
NOTES
1. Given the number of teams and media reports presented for each team, the actual probabilities of a single story significantly affecting an athlete's or a team's performance are extremely small. Anecdotal evidence tends to be exaggerated. It makes good copy. It is easy to blame the press for an unwanted or unexpected outcome. Such a claim appeals to individuals' distrust of the media. It sustains a myth. Research using Bayesian statistics to test the difference between the real and presumed effects should be conducted.
2. It is a good idea to check with a librarian for various computer data bases in medicine and sport. Often these can be accessed with a personal computer, telephone modem, and printer. The only drawback is cost. As the connect time and number of items increases, the costs generally increase. A relatively new journal started in 1985 is Sports Search which presents the Table of Contents for various professional journals in sports psychology, sportsmedicine, and specific sports ranging from karate to swimming. It is a handy reference to keep abreast of sports.
3. Two causes legally acceptable for removal of a scholarship from an athlete are: (1) inadequate scholarship leading to ineligibility under school, conference, or NCAA standards; and (2) actions violating criminal or civil law, school conduct rules, departmental or team rules, thus serving as grounds for dismissal as a disciplinary problem. Poor athletic performance is not justifiable cause in its own right. It must be seen as symptomatic of other causes such as drug use which inhibits performance and also is violation of one or more of the above conduct rules. Reasons for leveling one of these charges must be adequately documented. The athlete must have been warned that certain behaviors were proscribed or that his or her behavior was in violation of conduct rules or threaten continued scholarship support. Where probationary status can be granted, such action should be taken. Dismissal is to be exercises only as a last resort.
4. As undergraduates at Bowdoin College, we were fortunate to have been treated by Dr. Daniel Hanley, Olympic team doctor. I hope my memory does not play me false. I recall Dr. Hanley arguing that athletes hone their kinesthetic sense and are overly sensitive to body states which are self-defined as not normal. When these circumstances occur, the athlete seeks medical attention. Over the years medical services and the training staff have become more elaborate. With each new service added, there is a tendency for athletes to make use of it. It may well be that, given the population served and the institutional supports that have been created, a side-effect of sports participation is a tendency toward hypochondriasis. It would be interesting to compare athletes and non-athletes during the peak ages of sport participation, and compare former athletes and non-athletes in their 30s, 40s, and 50s to see if differences exist. To fully explore the hypotheses, one also should compare participants and non-participants in their 30s, 40s, and 50s to see if the effects of continued training maintain kinesthetic awareness and a propensity toward hypochondriasis.
5. Typically three options exist: either the head coach, or the aquatics director, or the intramurals director who usually is sensitive to the demands of recreational wants of the students, faculty, and community. If administrators wish to support the swimming program, they will define the coaching position so as to include the duties of an aquatics director position. If they wish to detract from the power of the head coach, they can separate the two positions. If they wish to make the head coach's job more difficult, they can place the aquatics director under the aegis of the intramurals director. In this case, pool time for competitive swimming gets short-changed.
6. An individual can build a reputation based on strengths and weaknesses. Areas often evaluated include understanding of stroke and turn mechanics; the ability to write workouts for various strokes and distances during each phase of the season; the ability to motivate athletes; organizational acumen; the ability to use people to their best advantage; the ability to recruit; and, the ability to raise monies. No coach will be strong in all areas, although as experiences increases an understanding of the basic issues in each of these areas is developed.
When a job becomes available and members of the coach's network learn of a job, they may inform him/her of the opening. Based on the kinds of skills needed, they can recommend whether application should be made, and whether recommendations can be made in fitting the job and the candidate.
7. In the long run the procedure may also reduce donations to the athletic department. Fewer donors and the consequent reduced budget may lead both athletes and department officials to seek alternative sources of funding. One source of big-dollar amounts is the commercial sector. Unfortunately, as dollar amounts get larger there is increased pressure to want some service or product in return for expenditure. An unanticipated pressure toward increased commercialism has been stimulated. Ironically, commercialism is one aspect of athletes that many of the NCAA rule changes are intended to eliminate.
TITLE PAGE
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
TABLE OF CONTENTS
PREFACE
CHAPTER 1 OVERVIEW AND KEY CONCEPTS
CHAPTER 2 THE ASSISTANT COACHES
CHAPTER 3 HIRING THE HEAD COACH
CHAPTER 4 THE HEAD COACH'S ORGANIZATIONAL AND COMMUNICATION ROLES
CHAPTER 5 THE PROBLEM OF CONTROL AND TURNOVER
CHAPTER 6 RECRUITING: STEPS AND STRATEGIES
CHAPTER 7 HEAD COACH AND KEY PEOPLE AND ORGANIZATIONS INSIDE THE SPORTS COMMUNITY
CHAPTER 8 SPECIAL PROBLEMS OF THE SPLIT APPOINTMENT & CHAPTER 9 SUMMARY
REFERENCES
Academic Resume