CHAPTER 4.-THE HEAD COACH'S ORGANIZATIONAL AND COMMUNICATION ROLES

"Coach, when you first started coaching didn't you think you were going to spend most of your time working with the swimmers on their stroke techniques and setting up training schedules?"

"Yes, but you quickly learn that this job has two other parts. You have to be organized and you have to be a good listener and talker."

"Kenny, you have been coaching for ten years now. What is the most difficult part of the job?"

"Like any job, if you do it long enough you establish a routine. You do things automatically. You fill out the same reports, face the same deadlines, and you hear the same problems repeated each year. It is easy to forget that the swimmers stay the same age and you are getting older. You get cynical and jaundiced unless you occasionally remind yourself that coaching is a 'people' job."

"What do you mean by that?"

"Most jobs make things or move paper in some way. A people job means you have put in a good day's work if you have talked with someone else and solved a problem or made them feel better."

"Are communication skills more important than a technical knowledge of swimming?"

"I don't know, but you better be able to get your ideas across to others."

**********

The job of swimming coach encompasses a combination of social skills and personal abilities. These skills and abilities allow the coach to fulfill the various organizational responsibilities of the position as well as interact with the student-athletes.

The organizational role cluster

There are two important role clusters that are part of the bundle of roles played by the coach. The first is the organizational role cluster, which encompasses a technical and a managerial side of the job. The second important role cluster is communication. The communication role is one of the more complex role clusters that the coach performs.

Technical dimension.-According to Armistead (1980: 45-46), the technical dimension includes the following activities. (For a more detailed listing of technique-oriented topics than those identified by Armistead (1980) and topics that must eventually be learned by coaches see note 1 at the end of this chapter.)⁽¹⁾

1. Training and competing.⁽²⁾-These two responsibility areas address a number of questions. For instance, who runs the workout? The head coach cannot run every workout during the year and expect to remain 100 percent effective. Morning practices may be delegated to the assistant coach. Or the assistant coaches and the head coach alternate the sessions for which each is responsible. Different faces provide variety for the swimmers. If all the coaches are responsible for morning workouts at various times during the season, it serves to reduce the social distance between swimmers and coaching staff. After all, misery loves company.

During afternoon workouts, does the head coach assign assistant coaches to groups, or lanes, or the handling of clerical tasks? Does the head coach tacitly oversee the workout or actively run the entire show?

How are swimmers to be assigned to groups? The coach has a number of options depending on how much control one wishes to exercise and how the assistant coaches' roles are defined in the program. First, the head coach can assign a group of swimmers to an assistant for the entire year. The assistant becomes responsible for working with a small and manageable group while learning the program structure as well as the personalities of the swimmers. The advantage to this approach is that the assistant serves as a conduit to the head coach for detailed information on the physical and emotional well-being of a limited number of swimmers. In staff sessions it is easy, then for the head coach to obtain feedback on the progress and status of the team from each of the assistants. The head coach can suggest strategies to cope with problems or intervene, if necessary. This approach allows the assistant to take responsibility in running all phases of the program from the beginning of the season to the end. To prevent assistants from making a mistake that would be detrimental to either the program or an individual, the coach should monitor the assistants' actions.

Second, if the head coach wishes to maintain control over the entire team, assistants may be assigned the more mundane tasks of information gatherers and equipment handlers. This approach creates a strong dependency between swimmers and head coach. There is no buffer when interpersonal problems arise. This approach limits the involvement of the assistants. Their role are passive, based on observation rather than doing. Many assistants who apprentice in this type of program become disillusioned and drop out, unless the coach's reputation counterbalances the frustration of the assistant playing a passive role.

Third, if the head coach wants assistants to learn all phases of the program, assignments may be rotated on a regular basis so that each phase of training responsibility is learned and working with each swimmer is experienced. This approach allows the head coach to oversee the program. It reduces the opportunity for swimmers to build dependencies with a particular assistant coach. It also reduces the likelihood that, if a particular coach and swimmer have a personality conflict, they will be forced to interact with one another over a long time.

Other issues that might be addressed include: What strokes will be practiced? What group will swim in a particular lane? Will swimmers swim one, two, or more to a lane? Will "circle" swimming be used? Will "waves" or "staggered" starts along the lanes be used? Responses to such questions usually are dictated by how many swimmers are in the program, the size of the pool, and whether the pool is set up for long course or short course. What equipment will be needed? What sets will be swum? What phases of training and/or stroke will be stressed? More often than not the time of season and how well the team has progressed to date predetermines the answers to these questions.

What items should the coaching staff stress in a given practice? Usually a coaches' meeting either at the beginning of the week or before each practice addresses the above sets of questions. Clearly these types of questions receive a lot of attention in the professional literature on coaching and consume the most time on a daily basis.

2. Running meets.-The proper execution of meets receives some discussion in the literature, but by and large this skill is learned as an apprentice or while serving a stint as a head coach (see Chapter 2).

3. Recruiting.-This area of responsibility involves the administration and conduct of the process of recruiting. The tasks are "scouting, contacting, rule observance and communication" (Armistead 1980: 45). (For more detail see Chapter 6.)

4. Public relations and promotions.-These two responsibilities involve the creation of support for competitive swimming in the community served by the program as well as the building a loyal audience. Typically, two kinds of skills are needed. First is the ability to plan and execute promotional activities in cooperation with representatives from the sports information office as well as with various media people. Second is the ability to develop a social and financial system of support through adult and student booster organizations as well as other campus and community organizations (see Chapter 6).

Managerial dimension.-Again, following Armistead the managerial dimension of the job includes the activities discussed in the sections below.

1. Administering current or prospective personnel.-Styles of control and philosophy of management are discussed later in this chapter. These tasks include hiring and firing of staff when necessary (see Chapter 2).

2. Planning and organizing of the program agenda.-These topics include the following tasks. The first task is the scheduling of meets--such as NCAA Championships, Conference championships, dual meets, and special meets--and the writing of contracts between schools for dual meets. The matter of scheduling is usually left to the head coach but may be subject to the approval of the AD. Often, juggling of the schedule from year to year is necessary to balance away and home meets to limit the number of long distance trips (excellent enticements for recruiting, but expensive), and to ensure the proper mix of opponents (conference and non-conference, or easy versus hard).

Second is the scheduling and integrating of practices--swimming, dryland exercises, aerobics, calisthenics, and weights (see Chapter 2).

Third is scheduling, attending, and overseeing (where appropriate) meetings with coaching staff, with the team, and with individuals for conferences; with people from the athletic department; with key people inside the sports community; and with other people outside the sports community.

3. Handling the budget.-The head coach estimates the costs of personnel. It is important to be sure to include salary increases in the budget projection. If the head coach fails to include them in the projected total, if any cuts are effected, then someone may miss out on a raise.

The head coach also estimates the costs for new equipment or replacements. For regular and relatively inexpensive equipment purchases, the budget usually has sufficient funds. For larger and expensive equipment purchases, the head coach needs to work with the AD, the fund-raising or development officer, and the boosters. It is important to try and obtain sponsorship from vested individuals and corporate interests in the community.

Costs of transportation, lodging, and food for travel to meets or when training at home during vacation breaks must be projected. The head coach needs to talk to other coaches in the department to find out how to estimate costs for various trips. Usually the various sports teams within a department will compete against the same schools. If the school is a member of a conference, then it is expected that members compete against other in the various sports. Similarly, most sports in an athletic department usually compete against other teams at roughly the same level of competition.

The head coach needs to plan for costs of recruitment. Depending on what kind of recruiting practices are permitted and the status and stage of development of the program, costs for recruiting will vary markedly (see Chapter 6).

Operating costs--expenses for pool rental, running of meetings, officials, organizational dues, telephone, and stationery usually are covered as part of the budget. Sometimes items are covered by the athletic department, sometimes by the swimming program. It is important to figure exactly where program funds are required. This information usually can be obtained from the secretarial staff member in charge of finances.

Finally, the head coach must identify the sources of income from the college or university budget, from development funds, and special projects. The head coach usually discusses the budget with the AD. It is important to ascertain whether (1) increased funding will be available, (2) a zero-based budget will be in effect, or (3) retrenchment is to be expected. The appropriate procedures for the completion and submission of forms can be learned by working with the appropriate person on the athletic department secretarial staff in charge of money matters.

4. Overseeing the clerical work.-The head coach is responsible for oversight and double checking of details on paper-work associated with each of the above areas as necessary. Two sets of activities are involved. The first task is the coordination of the correspondence and the flow of administrative information and paper work handled by the secretarial staff. The second task is the control of the record keeping and data entry tasks assigned to assistant coaches, managers, and work study students.

The second important role cluster is communication. The role of communicator is one of the more complex role clusters that the coach performs.

Styles of communication.-Behavioral scientists who study the process of communication define it as the exchange of information between people through the sending and receiving of messages. Messages include two parts: verbal and non-verbal. A number of coding schemes have been developed by social psychologists and sociologists over the years to analyze what people say to one another. Verbal statements are counted to see who talks the most or the least. Statements are coded for who is sending the message as well as who is receiving it. This identifies flows of conversation between individuals. Verbal statements also are coded and sorted according to the content of the messages. Robert Bales and his colleagues developed a technique called interaction process analysis to examine verbal statements in groups. Bales (1966) identifies three types of verbal behavior: (1) activity statements made by the individual to be different from others and achieve personal goals; (2) task ability statements aimed at achieving group goals; and (3) likability statements offered to set up and maintain social ties between individuals. What people repeatedly emphasize in conversation is recognized by others. Sometimes it is called style. Other times it is simply assumed to be part of an individual's personality.

For instance, individuals who tend to overwhelm others in sheer volume of conversation are displaying a form of "dominance" behavior. Such behavior quickly makes one known to others, although there is no guarantee that the speaker will be liked by the listeners. Individuals who tend to focus on task completion are "problem solvers, instrumental leaders, or task specialists." These are the people who say: "let's get down to business," "let's get on with it," and "stop fooling around and let's get busy." Individuals who tend to be concerned with emotive behavior are seen as "socio-emotional leaders." Individuals who are identified as effective leaders in groups tend to mix each of these styles over time when interacting with others.

Other schemes have been used with different categories to examine styles of communication between teachers and students in physical activity. Anderson and Barrette (1978) studied the behavior of physical education teachers instructing in the gym and found that they were busy communicators, moving among students and holding conversations lasting from a few seconds to several minutes. Much of their behavior emphasized observation, provision of instruction, and organization. Cheffers and Mancini (1978) found that physical education teachers spend a disproportionate amount of time giving information, directions, and offering criticism, and lower amounts of time giving praise or showing acceptance.

Settings.-The pool also is a setting in which training and teaching are expected. The coach, like the physical educator, is expected to operate in an information dispensing mode--most messages deal with giving of information, giving directions, offering criticisms, and sometimes offering praise. While on-deck the coach tends to be autocratic, foreclosing free-wheeling conversation. The flow of conversation moves from the head coach to the assistant coaches and then to the swimmers, or directly from the head coach to the swimmers. The same pattern noted for physical education teachers is seen in swim practices. Communications are directed to every athlete. The conversations tend to be too short, limited to the rest intervals between swimming (work) sets. Note that differences usually exist in the volume and intensity of interaction between early morning practices and afternoon practices. The morning practices are marked by a smaller volume of verbal communication; afternoon sessions have a larger volume. Swimmers tend to ask questions for clarification of instructions and seek acceptance or praise. If questions are not answered, swimmers expresses feelings of confusion and frustration, and eventually lapse into silence. Studies of athletes show that they expect coaches to act as critic and instructor during practices (Fisher et al. 1982: 388-404). In fact, if the head coach does not act as a critical observer, offering criticisms and suggestions, the swimmers begin to question whether the coach is acting in a professional manner. Observation without comment is interpreted as poor job performance.

Over time, as the experience of the teacher or coach increases, there is more emphasis on sending instructional messages to the student or athletes; more feedback also is offered. With experience, feedback moves from criticism only, to a positive reinforcement mode. Coaches learn to recognize that even constructive criticism, when repeated often, eventually gets interpreted negatively. Criticism that is a mix of a positive statement plus a corrective comment is more palatable to the athlete. Not only is the coach more effective in eliciting the desired behavior when he/she uses this style of communication, but the swimmer expresses positive sentiments toward the coach for using the style over the more typical pattern of giving directions, explaining, and informing (Rushall and Smith 1979: 138-150).⁽³⁾

A persistent complaint by athletes about their coaches is that coaches tend to be activity-oriented in their patterns of communication and to deemphasize likability patterns of communication. As already noted, research does show that coaches stress direction, instruction, and criticism. Even if the coach modifies personal behavior and uses a style of instruction that combines positive reinforcement with constructive criticism, the athletes still voice the same complaint. Perhaps a pattern of "relative deprivation" exists among college or university swimmers, especially freshmen. As age-groupers, they probably received more praise and personal attention than they do as collegiate swimmers. The swimmers use the behavior of their age-group coaches as a criterion to judge the actions of their college coach. By comparison, it may very well be that the collegiate coach spends less time with each swimmer and does offer less praise. It is also possible that as an age-grouper, the athlete was the best or among the best on the team, but as a collegiate swimmer is average or just another member of the team. Falling from a position of stardom to merely being one of the team (status drop) is a difficult adjustment. Accompanying a status drop is a reduction in the level of praise to which one formerly was accustomed.

The collegiate coach may make a concerted effort to pay more attention to the swimmers. The coach using his/her own past behavior as a bench mark sees the increased expenditure of effort as an improvement. The swimmers still see the coach's style of behavior as relatively non-supportive. The problem is the swimmers are making a judgment using another coach's behavior as the criterion rather than the past behaviors of the current coach. If the collegiate coach's efforts continually fall short and are criticized regardless of efforts made by the coach to change, then the coach tends to become disenchanted, if not cynical, about any possible gains obtained from such an effort. The coach sees himself/herself as positive, open, and a good communicator. The swimmers see the coach as less than ideal. The repetition of the same complaint over the years eventually gets dismissed. The coach claims no matter what you do to try and be open and supportive, it is never enough. The coach sees the swimmers as a bottomless pit into which praise can be poured endlessly. Eventually the coach stops trying.

As the skill level or mastery of subject matter increases in the teacher or coach, the messages tend increasingly to emphasize demonstration. There is more emphasis on teaching and giving of directions.

If the coach only communicates with the swimmer in a pool setting, the emotional side of the relationship may get shortchanged. The athlete will increasingly see the coach-athlete interaction as businesslike. The coach will tend to treat the athletes as objects for manipulation and direction. The coach will minimize, if not overlook completely, conversing with the athlete on matters that deal with life beyond the pool. Even in those situations in the pool when a different style of communication is required, and the coach attempts to make an emotional appeal (such as an exhortation to greater competitive effort), the appeal will fall on deaf ears. It will be viewed as "out of character." No groundwork will have been laid for the appeal to be effective. The coach will not recognize to which emotional cues one needs to be sensitive in order to appeal properly to the swimmer.

It is important to create settings in which various communicative styles can be used. The head coach can meet with the team for discussions on a variety of topics. In these sessions it is important to move away from a teaching mode. The coach should emphasize the likability style of communication. Coaches report that this style facilitates the development of team spirit, or cohesiveness, and allows individuals to learn about each other by focusing on experiences outside of swimming. These settings must be organized and clearly labeled as informal; a time to have fun. These sessions serve to counterbalance the emphasis on work which occurs in the pool. Studies of swimmers' (Gould et al. 1982) reasons for participating in the sport clearly indicate that having fun and developing social ties are among the more important items. As long as coaches incorporate social activities into the program structure which are fun and foster sociability, the attitude toward continued participation will be positive.

It is important to foster communication among team members. An effort should be made to encourage communication between newcomers (freshmen/transfers) and old-timers. If a strong tradition of upper-class leadership exists and newcomers are not expected to speak unless spoken to during training, the head coach must structure times when everyone can communicate freely. Another barrier that sometimes gets erected and stifles free flowing communication is the distinction between scholarship and non-scholarship athletes. If performances match with expectations, scholarship athletes can be turned to for leadership; if performances fall short of expectations, this type of status distinction can be a source of potential conflict. The coaching staff needs to try to minimize any discussion of scholarship as a basis for making invidious distinctions of worth.

Another strategy is to hold dialogues between the head coach and the swimmer. Such sessions build on ties started during recruitment and broaden the base of shared information. Both coach and swimmer develop a clearer understanding of the other's personal goals, the swimmer recognizes the rationale for the structure of the program, and the coach develops more complete information on the swimmer's goals and needs.

Research suggests that communication between individuals which fosters self-disclosure--revealing information of a personal nature--builds good relationships, enhances people's accuracy of perceptions of one another, and clarifies their understandings of one another's goals (Officer and Rosenfeld 1985: 360-70). Individuals who reveal personal information to others increase the risk that the other party may use that information against them. For disclosure to occur, the individual should see the listener as trustworthy, sincere, warm, and incapable of being provoked into using private information against anyone in a fit of anger. Individuals in positions of authority are less likely to be chosen as listeners than are individuals without authority. If the authority figure possesses these personality traits, then an individual might feel "free to open up." Parents are often selected as listeners; mothers are selected more often than fathers. Females are more frequently selected by females as listeners than are males, unless the male holds a job that is seen as providing technical knowledge, skills, or the ability to handle other people's problems--doctor, therapist, pharmacist (Hastings and Provol 1972), social worker, lawyer, teacher, or coach.

Coaches should recognize that females tend to engage in disclosure behavior more readily than do males. Females generally reveal matters concerning personal development and dealing with role identity to female coaches more easily than to males. Females will self-disclose to male coaches, if a foundation of trust has been established. The head coach, male or female, must recognize that the role of counselor automatically sets up an additional power dimension to that already claimed by virtue of the coach being an authority figure (Thorton 1981). By revealing personal information, the swimmer increases the degree of dependency on the coach. It is important that the coach not use this power in an exploitative fashion, if credibility as well as open and free-flowing communication are to be maintained.

It is important to recognize that simply providing different settings in which various types of communication might be manifested is no guarantee that, in fact, such styles of communication will occur. Athletes are shrewd enough to recognize that coaches may be manipulative; thus athletes are cynical concerning the coach's actions and intentions. Coaches, to be effective, must be sincere in order to ensure open communication.

The non-verbal message.-The non-verbal part of the message includes all actions other than the spoken part. It encompasses such actions as gestures, body posture, appearance, conduct, and the use of manipulation of physical objects and space which are extensions of self. Every social group shares understandings of what certain body postures or movements mean. Similarly, people from a particular culture recognize and agree on acceptable styles of dress, make-up, or costumes to be worn in given social settings. When certain types of clothes are worn, people expect that one should behave in a particular manner. How a person appears makes a moral statement to others, and indicates how an individual expects others to behave. Conversely, it also signals others on what kind of conduct one can expect in return.

Individuals as message senders are concerned with two elements of the act. First is the expression which is intended by the speaker. Second is the impression made on the audience. An individual, when transmitting a message consciously and unconsciously, uses both verbal and non-verbal elements. For there to be agreement between the expression created and the impression desired, there must be consistency between the spoken and unspoken parts of the message. The content must be clear and unambiguous. The sender must be sincere and convincing in conveying a message in order to ensure that the meaning is properly transmitted and that no misunderstanding occurs. Speech, appearance, and conduct must be consistent. Inconsistency creates ambiguity. Confusion may result between what is intended to be sent and what is received (Goffman 1959).

The head coach must be able to communicate clearly without distortion in order to convince swimmers that what is being said is truthful and important. The head coach should be able to manipulate personal expressions using whatever verbal styles, changes in appearance, or conduct are necessary to impress the audience addressed. In short, the head coach must be sensitive to the characteristics of the audience, whether an individual, a team, or a larger group with which he or she must communicate.

Recognizing the audience.-Who are the key people with whom the head coach must interact? What is the setting in which the communication will transpire? What role is to be played when communicating with this particular audience? What are the characteristics of the audience? What style of communication is expected?

A glance at Figure 1 reveals the different kinds of social relationships that the head coach establishes while occupying the coaching position in a university setting. Each relationship demands a different kind of role performance and a different style of

Insert Figure 1

communicating. The types of activities expected in each of these roles are discussed in Chapters 7 and 8.⁽⁴⁾

Summary

--The head coach's role involves acting out two major role clusters: organizational and communication.

--The organizational role cluster encompasses a technical side involving such tasks as directing training and competition, running meets, recruiting swimmers, and selling the program inside and outside of the academic community. The organizational rule cluster also has a managerial side involving such tasks as administering personnel, planning the agenda for the entire program, handling the budget, and overseeing the clerical work.

--The communication role cluster deals with choosing the style of communication (problem-solving versus likability), manipulating settings in which interaction occurs, and determining the consistency and effectiveness of the message for the kind of audience addressed.

REVIEW QUESTIONS

1. What kinds of technical matters does a coach need to master in order to be competent?

2. What managerial tasks are the responsibility of the head coach?

3. Review Chapter 2 and determine what kinds of technical and managerial tasks can be delegated to assistant coaches and what tasks are better handled by the head coach.

4. What styles of communication do you think are most effective in working with swimmers? With staff? With people inside and outside of the sports community? Read Chapter 7 before answering the last question.

NOTES

1. Based on one's formal education, attendance at clinics, professional reading and experience as an apprentice, it is expected that coaches will become familiar with and master information in the following areas.

Understanding of principles of hydrodynamics and applications in:

1. stroke mechanics for freestyle, backstroke, butterfly, and breastroke

2. turn mechanics for each stroke and transitions for individual medley

3. starts for individual races and relays

4. training for strokes; for sprinters, middle distance, and distance

5. teaching techniques appropriate to individuals of all ages from infants to Masters as well as use of coaching aids and training aids

Principles of physiology and an understanding of mechanics of body motion in:

6. recognition of symptoms of swimming injuries and advantages and disadvantages of massage and rubdown

7. mechanics of dryland exercises

8. flexibility and mechanics of stretching

9. mechanics of isometric, isotonic, and isokinetic training

10. conditioning and organization of phases of training season--pre-season, competition, and tapering

11. principles of nutrition as well as consequences of use of drugs

Understanding of selected principles in sociology and psychology:

12. organization of competition schedule and meet arrangements

13. models of control and decision making

14. models of organizational and interpersonal communication

15. theories of learning and selected psychological techniques--visualization, relaxation, motivation, goal setting, bio-feedback

16. recognition of rhythm and sensory deprivation

Understanding business principles and work skills:

17. pool construction, maintenance, and management

18. microcomputer and data management software finances

19. finances, fund raising, and basic accounting.

This list of topics was compiled after reviewing topics covered in standard textbooks on teaching or coaching of competitive swimming, topics usually addressed in professional journals on swimming, and topics of major presentations or workshops at World Clinics conducted annually. Although the list is not exhaustive, it is representative.

2. Although I use some of Armistead categories, I do not adhere to his system rigidly.

3. An excellent discussion on the defining characteristics of behavioral modification in coaching is presented by Martin and Hrycaiko (1983).

4. The social relationship between the head coach and the NCAA faculty representative as well as the relationship of the head coach with and members of the various oversight committees are not discussed. First, not every institution has these positions. Second, among those schools that have such positions, the relationships are still undergoing negotiation and are not yet sufficiently defined as to permit discussion.

TITLE PAGE
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
TABLE OF CONTENTS
PREFACE
CHAPTER 1 OVERVIEW AND KEY CONCEPTS
CHAPTER 2 THE ASSISTANT COACHES
CHAPTER 3 HIRING THE HEAD COACH
CHAPTER 4 THE HEAD COACH'S ORGANIZATIONAL AND COMMUNICATION ROLES
CHAPTER 5 THE PROBLEM OF CONTROL AND TURNOVER
CHAPTER 6 RECRUITING: STEPS AND STRATEGIES
CHAPTER 7 HEAD COACH AND KEY PEOPLE AND ORGANIZATIONS INSIDE THE SPORTS COMMUNITY
CHAPTER 8 SPECIAL PROBLEMS OF THE SPLIT APPOINTMENT & CHAPTER 9 SUMMARY
REFERENCES
Academic Resume