CHAPTER 2.-THE ASSISTANT COACHES

"Coach, may I have a minute of your time?" (Susan)

"Sure, come on in. What can I do for you?"

"Coach, I'm a phys. ed. major in my junior year. I need to assist a coach in some sport as part of my field placement requirement. I was wondering if you had an opening?" (Susan)

"I have an opening. But why did you choose swimming rather than basketball or volleyball?"

"I swam as an age-grouper and in high school. I had a scholarship to swim at the Univ. of X, but got injured in a car accident at the end of my sophomore year. I lost too much time trying to rehabilitate. I gave up my scholarship and transferred here because it is cheaper." (Susan)

"So, you swam with John Rex? That is good. Do you want to end up as a head coach in swimming?"

"Coach, right now I think that I would like to teach and coach in high school. If I can eventually get a job as a college coach, I'll take it." (Susan)

"Fine. Why don't we get together next week and talk about the program."

**********

Motives for entering coaching generally fall into two categories. First are structural motives--an individual's position in an organization or obligations to others compel the individual to serve as coach or pressure the individual to act as a volunteer coach. For example, teachers may serve as coaches because the school principal asked them to do so until such time someone is hired who is more qualified. Or an individual who is a parent with children who swim in the program may volunteer as an assistant coach. Second are personal motives--an individual holds beliefs or values that can be fulfilled as a coach. Examples of personal motives are wide ranging and include ones such as swimming is fun; or it is a great sport, one in which the individual can learn survival skills, achieve physical fitness, or learn the "ecstasy of victory" and the "agony of defeat." Individuals may view coaching as an extension of a life-long involvement in sport. Males are more likely to see coaching as a more viable career choice than females. Coaching may be a way of earning one's place in history. Similarly, the excitement of sport, the immediacy of gratification in teaching others a new skill, and the sociability and fun of being with others who share similar values are some of the reasons for coaching.

Individuals who enter coaching for structural motives generally have shorter careers than those who enter for individual motives. People who coach due to structural obligations are more likely to withdraw from coaching once those obligations are fulfilled than they are to continue in the position. For instance, a parent probably will not feel compelled to coach after the children have left age-group swimming and moved on to college or have withdrawn from swimming in favor of some other activity. Conversely, individuals who enter coaching for personal motives are more likely to stay as long as the job provides the satisfactions sought. Once the job ceases to satisfy those needs, disenchantment, burnout, and withdrawal may occur.

Whatever a person's motives for entering coaching, the act of starting may be either carefully planned or completely fortuitous. On the one hand, a youth may envision the day of achieving a place in the Swimming Hall of Fame as both swimmer and coach following a glorious career. On the other hand, an individual serving as an assistant never can anticipate whether the head coach will have an indiscreet affair, suffer a stroke, or get fired.

Given the nature of job contracts in college coaching (which usually are one year at a time with no tenure) and the untold events which can and do occur in academic and sports communities on college campuses, it is small wonder that more job openings do not occur every year than do.

Before a neophyte is competent to play the role of coach and be recognized by others as the "coach," one must serve as an apprentice. This position of assistant coach is the first rung on the career ladder for a professional coach.

The apprenticeship role

The apprenticeship role involves learning not only "formal skills," but also the "casual learning of the routine way of whatever" coaches do. (Unfortunately, the sociology of occupations and work is limited in the availability of case studies on apprenticeship jobs, the quoted material and the framework for discussing the apprenticeship role is based on Becker 1972.) It provides the beginner with the opportunity to become familiar with "the sights, sounds, situations, activities, and problems" faced as long as one in involved in the job. The apprentice sees the complexities of formal social relationships between others and the coach. The apprentice also experiences the demands and constraints arising in peer relationships.

The apprentice is involved in the immediate flow of activities. The apprentice picks up knowledge piecemeal, selectively focuses on some activity, value, or skill sequence; analyzing it; and, fitting that item into one's over-all understanding of what is required by the job. The individual picks up skills, lore, and understandings of interactions at his/her own pace. The individual must learn to evaluate competing sets of instructions given by fellow workers on how to best accomplish a task. The apprentice evolves a personalized curriculum of learning within the broader structure of job activities.

The apprentice must recognize that the coach's time and attention are not automatically guaranteed. Learning is a by-product of self-initiative. Learning is active, rather than passive. The coach is not responsible for the apprentice's failure to learn or remain in the job, although the apprentice often wants more structure and guidance from the coach.

Opportunities for learning on-the-job depend on the amount of latitude granted by the head coach and the staff. There is a great deal of variation across programs. Some coaches go to great pains to make sure that the apprentice receives detailed instructions. Other coaches assume that any individual worthy of becoming a coach will become attuned to what is expected and to perform as a coach.

Opportunities to learn also are a history of accidents. For example, how one handles injuries may not be learned unless an athlete experiences a trauma that requires treatment. What kinds of changes occur in the program when a coach resigns, only are learned, if the coach leaves. How the institution, the athletic director (AD), and the coaching staff respond to the public, press, administrators, when possibly faced with a NCAA probe, due to suspected rule violations cannot be anticipated. How does one cope with athletes arrested or charged with felonies such as DWI, drug related offenses, or assault is only understood through firsthand experience.

For the apprentice evaluation is an open and continuous process. The head coach, other members of the staff, and swimmers observe and rate the performance of the apprentice. As the apprentice moves from newcomer to seasoned apprentice, others expect the mastery of skills and the understanding of nuances to improve. In the beginning, there is more leeway for error, but as experience builds the tolerance for mistakes narrows. Repeated failures may generate pressures among the coaching staff and from the athletes for dismissal. Success gains respect. It is only inside the swimming community that any recognition of the assistant's contribution to the head coach's success and to the team's performance is recognized. For people beyond the swimming community the unit of evaluation is the team. Regardless of the strategy of control used by the head coach, the head coach alone is responsible for winning and losing, not the assistants.

In short, the apprenticeship role lets the individual realistically learn the job requirements with full knowledge that if a job is well-done, acceptance is earned and entry into the coaching profession may be obtained.

The role of the assistant coach

Initially new assistants are concerned with adjusting to the program's schedule of activities. Where are facilities located, the Nautilus-type equipment, and free weights? Where is the pool? Where is the equipment stored? What are the hours for training? What kinds of equipment are needed for training sessions? When and where do athletic department meetings take place? When do coaching planning sessions occur? In the midst of this welter of activities, assistant coaches often have to adjust to their class schedules as either teachers or students or adjust to their normal work schedule if they hold another job.

How a head coach chooses to define job tasks and delegate them is an individual preference. Assistant coaches typically are responsible for providing support in handling a variety of administrative and instructional activities. In some cases, responsibilities are carefully detailed and assigned fixed for the year; in other cases, responsibilities are rotated. As the season progresses for the new assistant coach there are sets of management and technical skills which need to be mastered. The bundle of activities that have to be performed by either the head coach or one or more of the assistants (either volunteer or paid) include the tasks described in the following sections.

Administrative tasks.-Prior to the arrival of athletes on campus the assistant coach or the head coach must check with the academic advisor to ensure that each athlete has properly filed admission applications, sent in high school transcripts, SAT and/or ACT scores, has proof of compliance with Proposition #48,⁽¹⁾ has been admitted, signed contracts for housing and received room assignments, signed meal contracts, filed for insurance, and pre-registered for classes.

When swimmers arrive on campus, an assistant coach should check the class schedules to ensure there is no conflict between practice sessions and lecture/laboratory sessions. The assistant coach should act as a resource person in directing students to appropriate buildings, offices, departments, and services during the first week of adjustment on campus. The assistant coach should learn where the administrative offices are located and which officials will expedite the handling of requests.

At the beginning of the school year an assistant may arrange for appointments with the team physician to get physical examinations and drug tests.

The assistant coaches, head coach, and athletes must attend the orientation meeting during which the athletic director or the college's or university's faculty representative to the NCAA explain the NCAA rules and regulations governing conduct and eligibility of athletes. The assistant coach helps to make sure that the appropriate affidavits are signed by each athlete (each member of the coaching staff also signs) confirming their understanding of and compliance with the institution's, the conference's, and the NCAA's rules.

During the year the assistant coach is expected to attend departmental and program staff meetings as well as all required social functions. For instance, one should attend adult and student booster club functions and when appropriate, represent the athletic department at fund raising activities.

The assistant coach is responsible for the coordination of transportation of the team to departmental and school-wide functions.

At the end of the quarter or semester each athlete's transcript is reviewed by the assistant coach in order to determine academic eligibility under conference and NCAA rules. Even if there is an academic advisor, the coaching staff should check the status of each member of the team. This action facilitates getting to know the athletes' capabilities beyond simply swimming as well as sensitizing the staff to potential problems. Where problems occur the assistant coach should notify the head coach, the athletic director, and the academic counselor. Around mid-quarter or mid-semester in some schools the athletic department or coach sends a form to each of the athlete's professors. The form is a status report requesting information on class attendance and grades to date. It also asks whether the faculty member has observed any learning problems. In cases where academic troubles or potential learning disabilities are noted, the athlete is referred to the academic advisor.

At the beginning of each season and periodically throughout the season the assistant coach may be asked to purchase equipment as needed. Replacement items usually include goggles, bathing caps, drag suits, paddles, kickboards, swim fins, surgical tubing, swimsuits for practice and for competition, team T-shirts, towels, clipboards, stop watches, eyedrops, eardrops, vitamins, and various office supplies. Procedures for filing vouchers vary by institution. The assistant coach is expected to learn these procedures. To do so, the assistant coach should check with the individual on the athletic department staff who is in charge of financial matters. Once procedures have been explained, the assistant coach must adhere to them. Failure to do so may prove expensive.

Large equipment purchases may include items such as swim benches, free weights, automatic timing system, electronic scoreboard, videotaping equipment, or computer equipment, programs, and supplies. The assistant coach should work with the head coach in setting up priorities for possible fund raising projects. Once priorities have been set, the head coach or assistant can work with the fund raisers and booster club to obtain funds for their purchase.

Equipment that is assigned to each swimmer and diver must logged and records kept on equipment lost or stolen. In the event that equipment is stolen, appropriate reports must be filed with the coach, athletic director, building officials, and campus security.

An inventory of all supplies and equipment usually is taken at the end of the season or academic year. Supplies and equipment are stored when not in use.

The assistant coach or the head coach is expected to coordinate and supervise activities of the managers. Managers are to make sure all suits, sweatsuits (practice and competition), and towels, are washed. They also see that the equipment is set up for practice sessions and properly stored after each session.

Supervisory tasks.-Before the assistant coach starts working on-deck, the head coach usually explains the sequence of training for the season during various phases of the season--pre-season, mid-season and dual meet competition, and taper and championships. The coach typically covers what the sequence of training is on a weekly basis; how the dryland exercises, weights, and swimming phases of the program are integrated; and how much emphasis is given to each on a day by day basis. The organization of a typical swim practice also is discussed.

Coaches are responsible for developing various regimens for Nautilus and free weight training and for supervising each practice session. During the season for each practice, whether Nautilus or free weights, attendance is logged. Each swimmer usually is given a sheet to record performances for the session. Records should be collected by the assistants, and reviewed with comments affixed on progress, areas of weakness, strength, and activities for swimmers to target for improvement in the next session.

Assistants also are responsible for supervising dryland exercises such as aerobics, calisthenics, stretching, and running (or other activities such as bicycling, tennis, or basketball during the early pre- or post-season). In the event of an accident, the assistants should know the appropriate procedures for contacting training staff, physician, or hospital depending on the severity of the injury. The assistants should inform the head coach, and the AD if necessary. The assistants need to fill out the accident report, file insurance forms, and take care of monitoring the athlete's visits to the physician or trainer during rehabilitation. Following any injuries the assistant coaches and the head coach should be informed by the physician or trainer on what modifications in training must be made.

On-deck tasks.- On-deck coaching usually involves taking responsibility for a particular swim practice (early morning or afternoon session), or a particular set of swimmers on the team, or a particular set of lanes. Assistants either write the workouts or supervise the workout prepared by the head coach. The assistants are responsible for analysis and feedback on stroke and turn mechanics. In order to be effective eventually as an on deck coach, the apprentice needs to develop a "photographic eye." Anyone who teaches or coaches swimming should understand stroke mechanics and body movement. The coach should be able to take a mental snapshot of any phase of stroke execution, analyze that image, and identify which elements of the stroke are incorrect. Each phase of stroke execution has a particular set of visible cues to which the apprentice needs to become sensitized. The apprentice must then be able to convey a verbal image, perhaps reinforced with gestures, which communicates to the swimmer where the mistake occurs and how best to rectify it. Coaches who have developed this talent are seen by swimmers and others coaches as "good stroke technicians."

Coaches also must learn to evaluate the relative efforts of swimmers in various strokes and distances as well as an appreciation of the intricacies of pace work. They should offer encouragement for solid performances, but not be excessively lavish in their praise. There is a delicate balance between too much criticism and too little praise, and vice versa. Too much criticism turns people off. Criticism becomes interpreted as an ad hominem attack. Whatever praise is later offered is dismissed. Similarly too much praise undermines the veracity of critique. Swimmers generally know whether they have performed maximally or at the expected levels. Too much praise for sub-par performance suggests the coach has misread the situation, and weakens the coach's reputation as knowledgeable. The coach should be sensitive to the physical and emotional states of the athlete and be able to respond appropriately.

Assistants often gravitate to their strengths. For example, if the assistant has a solid background in aerobics or weights, then that activity tends to be favored when permitted the choice of assignments.

Assistants should be able to videotape from on-deck and from underwater observation ports the practices and competition sessions. They must learn to analyze performances and suggest ways to improve mechanics. If a film or videotape library is available, an assistant may be responsible for ordering new materials and cataloging films and cassettes.

During swim practices assistants or managers may be expected to record splits (the time required to swim a sub-set of distance for a fixed amount of yardage--50s within a l00, 100s within a 500 or l000). In some programs these splits are recorded for every swimmer for each practice session. In other programs these splits are only recorded for practice sets during a given practice session or during a meet.

Both assistant coaches and swimmers should maintain a log of each practice. The log should include: what sets were swum (strokes or combinations of strokes and the yardages of each) and what time constraints were specified (time intervals for send-offs, time intervals to achieve) for fixed distances. Assistant coaches may be asked to analyze each workout in order to determine the percentage of time for aerobic and anaerobic training. They must record observations on the ease or difficulty of sets, the efficacy of particular drills, and the reactions of swimmers to sets as well as their performances.

During the competition phase of the season, one of the assistants usually is responsible for making travel reservations for the coaching staff and team. This responsibility includes: arranging hotel or motel rooms (remaining within the NCAA guidelines for the number of occupants per room and making sure to obtain the reduced rate for athletic teams and the free room for the head coach and/or bus driver); arranging for buffets and arranging for tours where possible; and arranging for transportation (vans, bus, or airlines and limousines as necessary). Arrangements should include: filing the required budget requests; obtaining travel advances from the treasurer's office; and clearing the itinerary with the head coach and the athletic director. Upon return from the trip all receipts, bills, and vouchers should be filed. The head coach over time should build a file of hotels/motels used, the prices charged, costs for buffets, phone numbers, and names of managers to contact in each of the various locales where the team regularly competes. This file speeds the process of fixing travel plans and makes the preparation of itineraries much easier.

During the competition phase of the season, an assistant makes sure to obtain meet results from coaches or sports information directors (SIDs) of schools in the conference or schools with whom meets are scheduled. Assistant coaches may be asked to prepare analyses of the opponent's team by looking at swimmer's performances in the events in which they have competed. As part of the exercise the assistant coaches should prepare a hypothetical lineup of swimmers by event to see how the team will best match up against the opponent's "best" lineup. The head coach and staff then evaluate the various lineups suggested to determine which strategy is best. If the team anticipates participating in invitational and national championships, then results from other programs expected to compete should also be obtained and studied.

During the competition phase of the season, an assistant coach usually confirms arrangements for meet schedules with visiting coaches. A copy of the itinerary, desired schedule for use of pool facilities, lodging plans, and the travel schedule are obtained. The head coaches confer in order to agree on which list of events is be swum. Any changes in eligibility of athletes are noted. Coaches confirm whether "no shave," "no Lycra" (competition suit), and/or "no rest and/or taper" agreements are still in effect. Assistants make any arrangements needed to ensure that the visiting coach and team are treated cordially, provided with towels, supplied with parking permits, and accommodated requests made by the visiting team's head coach.

One assistant coach usually is assigned to organize dual meets: schedules pool use; contacts the student booster organization and any other individuals who usually assist with meets telling them of the meet date and time to appear for pre-meet instructions; helps set up seating; prepares the scorer's table and diving table by laying out tablets, forms, and pencils; prepares clipboards with time cards and pencils for timers; assigns watches to timers (keeping a log of which watch is assigned to a timer); sets up electronic timing system (having starting pistols as backup for the start and the recall judge in the event of a false start); installs the touch pads and double checks the sound equipment; organizes meet officials; arranges for trainers and/or medical personnel to be on call; puts out lap counters; provides event entry cards for swimming and diving for each coach; checks on lane assignments with the visiting coach; allocates towels to the team managers to be returned after the meet; informs the media of the meet; contacts campus security to arrange for security on the parking lot and at the pool; and hangs the team banner.

Prior to the conference championship meet at the end of the season the head coach and the assistant coaches verify that entries are properly completed and filed. Following the conference championship meet an assistant coach obtains certificates of Proof of Performance for NCAA, verifies that these have been filled out or properly requested, and files them with the proper NCAA meet officials.

Following the completion of events each evening at the NCAA Championship meet, should swimmers place in the consolation or finals the assistant coach verifies the scores and obtains Certificates of Participation. When swimmers place in the consolations and finals, NCAA Honorable-Mention All-American or All-American certificates are picked up. After the season the assistant coach should make sure that these certificates are "plaqued" and displayed either at the pool, the athletic department, or coach's office. Certificates of Participation are given to swimmers who participated in the NCAA meet. An assistant coach also files forms for Academic All-American when swimmers or divers are eligible. For graduating seniors who achieved Academic All-American and intend to matriculate in graduate school, application for NCAA scholarships should be submitted.

Head coach and assistant coach interaction

The head coach should recognize that volunteers and assistant coaches are serving as "apprentices." The head coach may inform the newcomers of the kinds of stroke mechanics that are desired in the program. The head coach should pass on any verbal or physical cues that assist the swimmers in focusing on stroke mechanics and correcting typical errors. The head coach needs to indicate whether stroke mechanics are to be taught using a part-progression strategy or a holistic approach.

Assistants without a coaching background in swimming pose a challenge. Lacking an experiential base, they sometimes presume that by reading voraciously the void will be filled. Appealing to the authority of the written word is a simple strategy learned from long years in school. There is a tendency for some new assistants to follow such a strategy.

Standard sources on swimming techniques and on the principles of training that are often recommended include James E. Counsilman (1977) Competitive Swimming Manual, Ernest W. Maglischo (1982) Swimming Faster, Don Gambril and Alfred Bay (1984) Swimmer and Team, Randy Reese(c 1985) Building a Championship Season with Randy Reese, and John Troup and Randy Reese (1983) A Scientific Approach to the Sport of Swimming. In addition to these texts the beginning coach should stay current with articles which are published in Swimming World and Junior Swimmer, Swimming Technique, The Journal of Swimming Research, World Clinic Year Books, and ASCA Newsletter. (Those coaches with responsibilities for working with instructional and competitive programs within the community and interested in working with Masters swimmers should look up past issues of Swim Swim, stay current with times and news in MACA Newsletter, Swim Master, and read Swim Magazine. For a brief overview of Masters swimming see Hastings (1983) or Meyer (1982) and consult the column entitled "Masters Corner" that appears fairly regularly in Swimming World and Junior Swimmer.)

As assistant coaches become experienced, they tend to de-emphasize their dependence on written materials, and move toward a reliance on teaching techniques and training hints used by other coaches. Or, they simply may rely on what best works for them. The head coach should encourage the assistant coaches to resist forsaking the professional literature. Professional journals, issues of NCAA News, announcements from FINA or U.S. Swimming that cross the desk of the head coach should automatically be routed to the assistants to read, analyze, and critique. Where funds are available, assistants should be encouraged to attend World Clinics, and ASCA clinics and workshops. If the coaching staff has too many assistants, making travel and registration costs prohibitive, then perhaps individual staff might be sent on a rotational basis of one a year. When the assistant returns from such sessions a presentation of newly learned materials should be made to the coaching staff and team. If the head coach gives clinics, new assistants should be encouraged to attend and older assistants should be asked to serve as demonstrators and co-presenters. Any chance to broaden the technical and theoretical base of knowledge of the coaching staff should be seized.

For those individuals who are new to the program there is a great deal of anxiety over what is expected of them and of making mistakes. The head coach should take steps to reduce anxiety among staff members. By carefully detailing the activities and responsibilities expected of each individual, the head coach reduces the level of anxiety among newcomers. The unknown becomes known, and thus capable of being accomplished. Structuring tasks reduces the likelihood of error. The head coach must allow the newcomer to make mistakes. Reducing the stress associated with learning a new role minimizes role distance between head coach and assistants.

Despite what is commonly believed, assistants with a swimming background do not always make good coaches. Swimmers engaged in training very often are involved in a program where the coach is concerned with controlling the actions of the individual. In such cases the swimmer seldom develops a reflective and critical appreciation of the process. Usually individuals who come from a program emphasizing dependency on the coach often can faithfully reproduce activities and drills, but fail to understand the principles upon which they are constructed. Conversely, individuals who come from a program that emphasizes reflection and an active participation in the planning and organization of training often will better understand the rationale for doing certain types of sets and drills.

After an assistant has demonstrated a commitment to learning, to coaching, and to professionalism as well as having proved one's loyalty, the coach should be willing to accept the assistant as a colleague. The head coach, when needed, should serve as an advocate for the individual. Being a colleague and an advocate include such actions as assisting in job placement, maintaining professional exchanges of information over the years, undertaking collaborative research projects or co-assignments in coaching.

The coach needs to ensure that channels of communication are always open with the rest of the coaching staff. Where questions arise concerning techniques, training sessions, issues of philosophy, role responsibilities, or ways to handle interpersonal squabbles, there must be an opportunity to answer them. Differences of opinion should be aired, noted, and resolutions negotiated when possible. Where differences persist, the head coach and assistant coaches must agree to disagree. When addressing the team the coaching staff must give the appearance of a united front. Differences of opinion between coaches always must remain among themselves, private from the athletes. Keeping coaches' opinions private reduces the possibility of conflicts becoming public and prevents swimmers from taking sides in any conflict. Individuals without experience tend to be more likely to reveal coaches' secrets to the athletes than do experienced personnel. Assistant coaches should avoid this pitfall for a team that is overly concerned with micro-politics is distracted from training, from achieving individual and team goals, and from optimal swimming performances.

Coach's assumptions in adding staff

Although the prerogative of hiring the head coach rests with the AD, the addition of volunteer coaches and hiring of assistant coaches are the duties of the head coach. The same job markers that describe the categories of experience for the head coach pertain to the assistant coaching staff. (For a discussion of head coach's job markers see Chapter 3.) The levels of excellence and experience desired vary by program.

Volunteer coaches.-Volunteer coaches usually are individuals interested in the sport either as former participants, devotees, parents with children who swim, or students fulfilling some field placement requirement in education or physical education. Volunteer coaches more often than not tend to be part-time workers. Their involvement is circumscribed by responsibilities defined elsewhere.

To recruit volunteer coaches the head coach can use a network of contacts in the local community. The head coach might contact local U.S. Swimming clubs, high schools, YMCAs, Masters programs, or individuals with aquatics backgrounds--such as alumni who swam--in order to spread the word that a job position is open. The head coach also may contact representatives in the physical education department or place an advertisement in the school paper (Leonard 1980).

Coaches, when evaluating volunteers who are interested in working with the program, need to assess the nature of their swimming background. Typical questions are: When did they swim? Where did they swim? Who was their coach? What strokes did they swim? Have they coached before? When, where, and with whom did they coach or were they on their own? Are they ASCA certified?

How individuals respond to these questions establish the currency of their knowledge on the state of the arts in swim mechanics, turns, starts; their level of understanding of physiology and principles underpinning training techniques; their level of competition; and their degree of familiarity with the routines and pressures confronting the coach, staff and swimmers during the season. These responses quickly allow the head coach to determine whether individual is able to work with the program. If the head coach decides to add the individual to the staff, the nature of the applicant's responses provides a clue on how much instruction will be needed, how many responsibilities may be delegated, and how much autonomy may be granted to the individual.

The head coach usually establishes what the duties of the volunteer coach are and what kind of time commitment is required. Rewards for working as a volunteer coach usually are non-monetary. Volunteer coaches may be viewed by head coaches with a degree of ambivalence. Any assistance that is competent and reliable is welcomed, especially if it is free. If the assistance is incompetent, unreliable, and unpredictable, generally any gains tend to be offset by energies expended in troubleshooting. Some coaches feel that new personnel are needed to re-invigorate the program with new ideas. Other coaches feel that volunteers are unreliable and are not worth the trouble. These coaches argue that individuals are more dependable if they are under contract.

In programs with limited financial resources and without an extensive system of organizational support--such as alumni swimmers, boosters, interested parents, and volunteer officials--very often volunteer coaches play an important role in taking care of equipment, running meets, and serving as information gatherers or administrative assistants.

Volunteer coaches generally hold the same beliefs about sports that paid coaches espouse (Gould and Martens 1979). Volunteer coaches see sports as fun and the participants' well-being as important. They see sports as promoting physical fitness. They do not see participants as spending too much time with the sport, as being under too much physical stress, or as psychologically damaged by losing. Volunteer coaches also see parents as sources of interference and complain of poor officiating. Given the fact volunteer coaches espouse similar beliefs about sport as head coaches, and willingly undertake a variety of tasks, often with a minimum of griping, it is easy for the head coach to take them for granted and sometimes unduly exploit them. The head coach needs to be sure to recognize the contribution of the volunteer staff in order to maintain equanimity between volunteers, head coach, and staff. Failure to be sensitive to the needs of volunteers may engender ill-will, conflict, or lead to individuals quitting.

Volunteer assistants often have a high rate of turnover. Graduation takes a toll. Many become disillusioned with the job. They find the hours long and the rewards minimal. They see themselves as having little impact on the program. They sometimes claim that the swimmers view them as something to be tolerated and often incompetent. Many find the pressures of work, family, and other organizational work more demanding, and time consuming, if not more interesting. They do not see coaching as a viable career option.

Other volunteers are not willing to wait and serve. As soon as they have mastered a set of activities, they feel entitled to be elevated in status or paid as an assistant. If these conditions are not met, they may tend to look elsewhere for employment or lose interest.

Paid assistants.-The same job markers apply for assistant coaches as head coaches. Assistant coaches typically fall into one of two categories: (1) full-time paid and (2) part-time paid. Full-time paid assistants fall under federal Affirmative Action requirements and the same screening measures are followed in hiring for these positions as for the head coach. Part-time paid positions do not fall under the federal employment guidelines. Universities and colleges vary on the degree of rigor expected in complying with Affirmative Action guidelines. If a job vacancy occurs at a critical point in the season, conformity to the letter of the law is less likely to be pressed than if the opening occurs during the off-season when recruiting is completed.

How much an assistant coach should be paid varies depending on the philosophy of the head coach and available budget. Some coaches believe assistants should pay the head coach for the opportunity to serve an apprenticeship with them. After all, the knowledge gleaned, the prestige acquired from working with a "top coach," and the better job possibilities following such an association justify the expense. Others believe that assistants should be paid a decent salary commensurate with the services rendered. Unfortunately swim coaches are paid little for long hours of work. Frequently a coach has to supplement a salary with another job in order to survive. Assistant coaches usually are paid even less. Often assistants who need money to survive find themselves torn between a highly paid non-coaching job and a more enjoyable low paying coaching job. Assistants forced to make a choice between enjoyment and money usually will opt for money. It is easy to understand why some head coaches believe that assistants who do not receive adequate wages are viewed as less likely to be loyal than the better paid.

1. Full-time assistant coaches.-Job applicants usually are recruited and hired with some degree of permanency assumed. In recruiting assistant coaches, the head coach relies on the network of contacts developed in the larger swimming community. In addition to personally contacting other coaches and members of the swimming community, job advertisements may be placed in the NCAA News, Chronicle of Higher Education, Swimming World and Junior Swimmer, and ASCA Employment Newsletter.

Applicants usually submit resumes in response to the advertisements. Some coaches will hire an applicant sight unseen, relying only on the cover letter, resume, and a phone call. Such an action is understandable if an assistant coach is needed immediately. Hiring someone without a personal interview is a practice to be avoided (Gambril 1983: 169-176). More often than not, the assistant will have to be replaced. Sometimes the assistant coaches are full-time graduate assistants. In such cases the head coach can release them from coaching duties, but usually they have the right to continue the scholarship until the end of the quarter or semester. This situation is an unnecessary drain of financial resources, is difficult to justify when collegiate budgets are tight, and is a waste of personnel. The interview is critical in assessing the applicant's motives in applying for the position as well as assessing whether the applicant and the head coach agree concerning the program's philosophy.

Some head coaches will not hire individuals as assistant coaches unless they claim that they eventually want to become a head coach. The head coach believes that individuals who have this goal are more willing to explore a variety of activities during their apprenticeship than individuals who want to remain as assistants. This practice probably leads to head coaches surrounding themselves with people who share similar beliefs and personality traits. If personality types in fact do evolve in a profession, selectivity in hiring practices may be a contributing factor.

Some assistant coaches may remain in a program as long as the head coach that hired them stays, or until the head coach and staff are fired. There are some fine full-time assistants who spend their entire career with one program. Others move to another position after gaining experience. Still others simply drop out of coaching.

2. Part-time paid assistants.-The head coach often employs athletes who have completed eligibility, but need financial support to finish requirements for an undergraduate degree. In many cases, these positions involve graduate stipends provided by the athletic program or the department of physical education which permit individuals to pursue a graduate degree with coaching as the stipulated condition of employment. Such positions usually are for a term of two years. Graduate assistants rarely are hired after their term of employment is completed.

Motives for remaining as an assistant coach in part depend on how the position of assistant coach is perceived by the individual and by others. For instance, how much responsibility is assigned and how much latitude one has in contributing to the over all development of the program often are factors considered when it comes time to move. The professional stature of the coach and the reputation of the program are factors also weighed in the decision making process. Finally, the calibre of competition in the conference and the reputation of the institution must be considered.

Summary

--People enter coaching for a combination of structural and personal motives. Those who enter for structural reasons do not tend to remain in coaching as long as those who entered for personal reasons.

--Before achieving the position of a head coach the individual must serve an apprenticeship as an assistant coach. One may serve as a volunteer or a paid assistant (either full-time or part-time).

--The role of the assistant coach involves learning a variety of administrative, supervisory, and on-deck tasks. The apprentice learns these tasks by watching, reading, and doing. How much instruction is provided by the head coach depends on the individual's philosophy.

--The role of the assistant coach is complex. It takes time to learn, involves long hours, has low pay, and little prestige.

--The turnover among assistant coaches is high, but those who survive often move on to become head coaches.

REVIEW QUESTIONS

1. What are the kinds of motives that lead a person into coaching? Why do you want to coach? Do you see coaching as the only career that you will have? If not, what steps have you taken to prepare for an alternative career?

2. Describe what kinds of learning opportunities are available to an individual while serving as an apprentice. Would you want a great deal of direction and instruction as an apprentice or would you prefer to be left on your own to pick up things?

3. What are the areas of activity for which an assistant coach may be responsible? Which activities would you want to learn first? Which ones would you save to learn later?

4. What are the advantages and disadvantages of serving as a volunteer coach? As a paid assistant coach?

NOTES

1. "Proposition 48 requires a 2.00 grade-point average (based on a 4.00 maximum) in a core curriculum of at least 11 academic courses including at least three years in English, two years in mathematics, two years in social science, and two years in natural science or physical science. It also requires a minimum 700 combined score on the SAT verbal and math sections or a minimum 15 composite score on the ACT." (Martin Gehring/News-Sentinel staff. No date.) The requirements for instructional elements in each of the core courses are specified as is an indexing system to be used to phase in the application of the rule.

2. In the late 1950s swimmers discovered that removal of hair from the arms, legs, and torso reduced a feeling of drag and heightened a kinesthetic feel for the water. Swimmers when shaved generally swim faster than when unshaved. Whether this fact is best explained by principles of hydrodynamics or principles of psychology has yet to be clearly established. Incidentally, some swim coaches believe that track athletes may soon copy this practice.

3. Swimmers generally have two types of swimsuits: one is a practice suit, made of cotton, loose fitting and absorbent, creating resistance; the other is a competition suit, made of water resistant material, form fitting, and lowering resistance.

4. For a discussion of the taper see Miller (1977) or Hannula (1984).

5. When an institution hosts a conference championship meet usually one or more of the assistants are involved in organizing the meet. (For a discussion of procedures followed in hosting a conference championship meet see Hastings and Wantland 1986.)

6. Two problems frequently occur. First, assistant coaches sometimes like to date athletes. To prevent possible charges of sexual harassment or undue use of authority, in claims that have been made by students against superiors and have been sustained by the courts, it is best to effect a coaching staff policy of no dating of athletes by the coaches. Second, assistant coaches, if close to the ages of the athletes often like to mix with them socially. Fraternization may create problems in maintaining a clearly defined hierarchy of authority between coaching staff and athletes. It is a circumstance that must be monitored closely.

TITLE PAGE
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
TABLE OF CONTENTS
PREFACE
CHAPTER 1 OVERVIEW AND KEY CONCEPTS
CHAPTER 2 THE ASSISTANT COACHES
CHAPTER 3 HIRING THE HEAD COACH
CHAPTER 4 THE HEAD COACH'S ORGANIZATIONAL AND COMMUNICATION ROLES
CHAPTER 5 THE PROBLEM OF CONTROL AND TURNOVER
CHAPTER 6 RECRUITING: STEPS AND STRATEGIES
CHAPTER 7 HEAD COACH AND KEY PEOPLE AND ORGANIZATIONS INSIDE THE SPORTS COMMUNITY
CHAPTER 8 SPECIAL PROBLEMS OF THE SPLIT APPOINTMENT & CHAPTER 9 SUMMARY
REFERENCES
Academic Resume