Sociology 665 - Advanced Topics in Energy, Environment, and Natural Resources Policy: Inequalities in Environmental Risk"
Instructors:

Hastings: 907 McClung
Phone: 865/974-7019
E-mail: dhasting@utk.edu
Office hours: MWF 10-11am by appt

Cable: 919 McClung
Phone: 865/974-7031
E-mail: scable@utk.edu
Office hours: Tuesday 11:15-1:00 by appt.



COURSE DESCRIPTION:

The general subject of this doctoral level course is the unequal distribution of environmental risks across various status hierarchies. We will first examine the sociological literature on the topic of environmental racism to identify some of the gaps. The remainder of the course reflects our estimation of the areas in general sociology that promise an improved understanding of environmental racism. As a result, we examine, among other topics, social stratification, differing modes of production, institutional discrimination, the epidemiological transition, the American apartheid system, environmental policy, the demographics of land use and occupancy, the legal grounds for establishing environmental racism, and environmental justice and national security. The literature covered will include historical, sociological, and legal sources. The format of the course is lecture and discussion.

The specific objectives of this course are:
COURSE REQUIREMENTS:

Final grades for the course will be based on class participation (occasionally we will assign readings for which you will be responsible in leading discussion), the preparation of three specialty examination-type questions, and a final examination in which students answer one of their own questions.

The purpose in the requirement of specialty examination questions is to demonstrate the close connections among individual articles/books, literature reviews, and specialty exam questions. Students tend to write literature reviews that consist of brief, discrete descriptions of a number of articles on a general topic, organized either randomly or chronologically. Instead, literature reviews should be thematic and analytical, indicating how one cluster of articles is related to another cluster and what gaps exist in the literature - what questions have not been addressed that should be. Such writing requires that you analyze and integrate the literature. It is this type of understanding of the literature that forms the basis for faculty's writing of specialty examination questions. Therefore, the plan is to help you learn, simultaneously, about literature reviews and specialty examinations.

You will write three specialty exam questions on the topic of environmental racism. Each question should elicit an essay that is similar to literature reviews on specific topics - it should require a response that synthesizes and analyzes the literature. A draft of your questions is due on October 31 for our review and comments. Your revised questions are due November 28. On the day of the final exam, you will be given one of your questions to write an essay.

Course grade 30% class participation, 30% 3 questions, 40% final exam.

READING MATERIALS:

Assigned readings include a series of articles and books. The required articles are listed in the next section of this syllabus and are available in the Reserve Room of the library. Besides the required readings, the next section also lists optional readings that should be useful to you in writing the specialty exam questions. The required books are listed below and are available at local bookstores.

Alphonso Pinkney. 1993. Black Americans. 4e. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall.

Joe R. Feagin and Clairece Booher Feagin. 1986. Discrimination American Style: Institutional Racism and Sexism. 2e. Melbourne, FL: Krieger Pub. Co.

Riley E. Dunlap and Angela G. Mertif. 1992. American Environmentalism: The US Environmental Movement, 1970-1990. Washington, DC: Taylor and Francis.

Andrew Hurley. 1995. Environmental Inequalities: Class, Race, and Industrial Pollution in Gary, Indiana, 1945-1980. Chapel Hill: UNC Press.

Michael Renner. 1996. Fighting for Survival: Environmental Decline, Social Conflict, and the New Age of Insecurity. NY: WW Norton and Co.

Please note on articles with JSTOR you may find this link http://www.jstor.org> and read as adobe file. JSTOR is supported by the University of Tennessee Library. Articles in Law Reviews may be obtained from LEXIS NEXIS. Use the Hodges Library links to data bases.

LECTURE TOPICS AND READINGS

Lecture 1: (Cable) "Introduction to the Topic of Environmental Racism"

"Review of the Environmental Racism Literature: Environmental Racism? Yes and No"

This lecture provides a selective review of the literature that identifies some important shifts of emphasis in the research area. From 1987 to 1994, the literature is dominated by studies reporting evidence of environmental racism. Some were case studies but by 1992 a shift to quantitative methodologies was apparent. The focal dependent variable tended to be waste disposal sites. In 1994-1995, researchers began to report on studies that failed to find evidence of environmental racism. Since 1995, the literature has featured some thoughtful methodological reflections in efforts to explain the discrepant findings in the literature.

Required readings:

None

Optional readings:

Robert D. Bullard. 1990. Dumping in Dixie: Race, Class and Environmental Quality. Boulder: Westview Press.

*Sherry Cable and Thomas Shriver. 1995. "Production and extrapolation of meaning in the environmental justice movement." Sociological Spectrum 15: 419-442.

*Stella Capek. 1993. "The environmental justice frame: A conceptual discussion and an application. Social Problems 40:5-24.

*Marie D. Hoff and Mary E. Rogge. 1996. "Everything that rises must converge: Developing a Social Work response to environmental injustice." Journal of Progressive Human Services 7(1): 41-56.

*Mary E. Rogge. 1993. "Social work, disenfranchised communities, and the natural environment: Field education opportunities." Journal of Social Work Education 29,1(Winter): 111-120.

Lecture 2: (Hastings) "Social Inequalities: Modes of Production and Status Differentiation versus Status Discrimination"

This lecture covers some basic elements for an understanding of social inequalities. Inequalities are discussed as a productof different modes of production. Distinctions are made between status differentiation and status discrimination.

Required readings:

*Vincent Jeffries and H. Edward Ransford. 1980. Social Stratification: A Multiple Hierarchy Approach. Boston: Allyn Bacon. Chapters 1,2,5.

Optional readings:

*Vincent Jeffries and H. Edward Ransford. 1980. Social Stratification: A Multiple Hierarchy Approach. Boston: Allyn Bacon. Chapters 3,6,7, 13.

I. Modes of production

A Creation of inequalities as a consequence of division of labor.

Function of size-role specialization-formalization-verticality-concentration of information + power + wealth + prestige. Discuss merger of Weber and Marx.

B Creation of split labor markets (by ethnicity, race, and gender).

C Creation of monopolistic niches in occupational structure.

II Status differentiation (categorical assignment/commonality-second order concept on nature of groups) versus status discrimination

A Status hierarchies

1 Class (means of production owner vs. worker; occupation knowledge, skill, usefulness to society; education leisured vs. non-leisure)

2 Legal status (enter into contracts, expected conformity to laws, guarantee protection under law-enfranchised vs.disenfranchised, citizen vs. strangers, illegal vs legal migrant, non-resident vs resident, guest worker, free, prisoner, slave [those saved from infanticide, captive, heathens and infidels vs chosen, economic status, people of color]

3 Ethnicity and religion - cultural markers, categorical assignment, individual and group identification, communality

4 Race - socially agreed on biological markers, categorical assignment, individual and group identification, communality.

5 Sex -

6 Age -

B Status shapes resources available and invested, varieties of experiences, quality of life, that sum of endowments that are a product of historical rooted institutions, policies effected, and current structures that determine life chances.

1 Inequalities in wealth between developed and developing nations and inequalities in income within a country - impact on life chances: health, mortality, and crime.

See inequalities notebook

2 Inequalities between race, ethnic, and religious groups-Policies effected -annihilation, subjugation (Pax Romana, Anglo-Conformity), colonization, insularity, assimilation, pluralism.

3 Inequalities in gender impact on health, mortality, fertility, and economic development. Liberation vs traditional subservience.

See World Population Conference Report.

Lecture 3: (Cable) "Intro to Social Stratification, I: Why Do Social Inequalities Occur?"

Distinctions are made between two types of explanations for social stratification: biopsychological explanations and sociocultural explanations. Modes of production and the role of social surplus in institutionalized stratification are discussed.

Required readings:

None

Optional readings:

Daniel W. Rossides. 1997. Social Stratification: The Interplay of Class, Race, and Gender. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice-Hall.

Robert A. Rothman. 1999. Inequality and Stratification: Race, Class, and Gender. 3e. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice-Hall.

Lecture 4: (Hastings) "The Unequal Distribution of Risks"

Discusses the nature and distribution of risks that derives from the carrying capacity of the earth and from population size and density.

Distribution of risks-affecting survival of species, quality of life, and life chances.

I Natural vs artificial carrying capacity (Catton-Overshoot)

level of living = production / population (1700-1800s)classical economists Hutchinson, p 255
population = production / standard of living or Cairnes
Population = (revenue - amount of revenue removed by inequalities of distribution)/minimum per capita consumption) p257
optimum population (early conceptions stressed pop size, later conceptions stressed production levels)
See Ehrlich-

II Population size and density and modes of production (with waste by-products or activities that affect natural resources (air, H2O, land, flora, fauna) ecosystems, disease vectors, pathogenic adaption, and speed of disease transfer within and across species.

Population size + density -> division of labor -> (see above) + risk (assumption about nature of risks) + degradation of environment

Required readings:
William R. Catton, Jr. 1980. Overshoot: The Ecological Basis of Revolutionary Change. Urbana: University of IL. [GF41.C37]

Clive Ponting. A Green History of the World. NY: St. Martin's. [GF75.P66]

Optional readings:

Beck. Risk Society.

Suggest web sites on inequality.

Lecture 5: (Cable) "Intro to Social Stratification, II: Global Stratification and Hegemonic Culture"

Addresses the relationship between social class and life chances of the individual. Reviews Wallerstein's concepts of core, periphery, and semi-periphery nations in a global stratification system. Discusses the legitimation of class structure through a hegemonic culture.

Required readings:

None

Optional readings:

Daniel W. Rossides. 1997. Social Stratification: The Interplay of Class, Race, and Gender. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice-Hall.

Robert A. Rothman. 1999. Inequality and Stratification: Race, Class, and Gender. 3e. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice-Hall.
Lecture 6: (Cable): "Racial Inequalities and Black Life Chances"

Examines the life chances of black Americans in the following areas: socioeconomic status (e.g., education, occupational status, income); social institutions (e.g., family life and political life); health (e.g., mortality rates, quality of health care, homicide, homelessness, and adolescent pregnancy and childbearing).

Required readings:

Alphonso Pinkney. 1993. Black Americans. 4e. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall.

Optional readings:

None

Lecture 7: (Hastings) "The Demographic and Epidemiological Transition"

Discusses the initial and revised theories of the demographic and epidemiological transition. Examines the mortality transition in the US in three time periods; frontier, rural, and urban differentials in mortality; and morbidity and mortality differentials across class, race, and gender. Addresses patterns of land use and occupancy resulting in segregation and hypersegregation.

A. Initial version of ET-

(R)*Abdel R. Omran. 1971. The epidemiologic transition. A theory of epidemiology of population change. Milbank Memorial Fund Quarterly 49:509-538.

B. Revised version of ET-

(R)*Richard G. Rodgers and Robert Hackenberg. 1987. "Extending epidemiological transition theory: A new stage." Social Biology 34 (3-4): 234-243.

(O)*Sulaiman M. Bah. 1995. "Quantitative approaches to detect the fourth stage of the epidemiologic transition." Social Biology 42 (1-2):141-148.

C. Mortality transition in the United States

1. Time periods (prior to 1900, 1900-1950, post 1950

(O)*S.L.N.Rao. 1973. "On long term mortality trends in the United States, 1850-1968." Demography 10,3 (August): 405-419. <http://www.jstor.org>
above article

2. Frontier, rural, urban differentials

(R)*Catherine Hofer Levison, Donald W. Hastings, and Jerry N. Harrison. 1981. "The epidemiologic transition in a frontier town: Manti, Utah, 1849-1977." American Journal of Physical Anthropology, Vol 56 No. 1 (September): 83-93.

(O)*Katherine A. Lynch, Geraldine P. Mineau, and Douglas L. Anderton. 1985. "Estimates of infant mortality on the western frontier." Historical Methods 18,4 (Fall): 155-164.

(O)*Paul H. Price. 1954. "Trends in mortality differentials in the United States." Southwestern Social Science Quarterly 35,4: 255-263.

3. Class, race, gender mortality differentials.

(O)*Aaron Antonovsky. 1967. "Social class, life expectancy, and overall mortality." Milbank Memorial Fund Quarterly XLV, 2, Part 1: 31-73.

(O)*Richard G. Rogers. 1992. "Living and dying in the U.S.A.: Sociodemographic determinants of death among blacks and whites." Demography 29,2 (May): 287-303. Above article

(R)*Robert A. Hummer. 1996. "Black-white differences in health and mortality: A review and conceptual model." The Sociological Quarterly 37, 1:105-125.

D. Patterns of land use and occupancy-Urbanization (concentration), suburbanization (deconcentration), residential segregation, and hypersegregation

(O)*Daniel T. Lichter. 1985. "Racial concentration and segregation across counties, 1950-1980." Demography 22,4 (Nov.): 603-609. Above article

(R)*Douglas S. Massey. 1979. "Residential segregation of Spanish Americans in United States urban areas." Demography 16,4: 553-563. (Desegregation for Latinos increases as duration of residence increases and lessens for each successive generation, i.e., foreign born to native born, second generation, etc.) Above article

(O)*Douglas S. Massey and Nancy A. Denton. 1989. "Hypersegregation in U.S. metropolitan areas: Black and Hispanic segregation along five dimensions." Demography 26,3 (August): 373-391. Above article

(R)*Mark Schneider and Thomas Phelan. 1993. "Black suburbanization in the 1980s." Demography 30,2 (May): 269-279. Above article

(R)*Douglas Massey, A. Gross, and K. Shibuya. 1994. "Migration, segregation, and the geographic concentration of poverty." American Sociological Review 59: 425-445. Above article

Note urbanization + hypersegregation also associated with inequalities in wealth. Note differences in American apartheid (quasi-caste-K. Davis) vs generational assimilation model.

Lecture 8: (Cable) "Racial Inequalities and Institutional Discrimination"

Discusses concept of institutional discrimination. Distinguishes between direct and indirect and between intentional and unintentional discrimination to describe four types of racial discrimination: isolate, small-group, direct institutionalized and indirect institutionalized. Provides application of institutional discrimination framework to the economic institution to discuss six mechanisms of economic discrimination: recruitment practices; screening practices; tracking systems; promotion practices; terms and conditions of employment; and layoff, discharge, and seniority practices.

Required readings:

*Joe R. Feagin and Clairece Booher Feagin. 1986. Discrimination American Style: Institutional Racism and Sexism. 2e. Melbourne, FL: Krieger Publishing Co.

Optional readings:

Charles V. Hamilton and Stokeley Carmichael. 1967. Black Power. NY: Vintage Books.

Louis L. Knowles and Kenneth Prewitt, eds. 1969. Institutional Racism in America. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall.

Lecture 9: (Cable) "Industrialization and the Establishment of the American Apartheid System, 1619-1954"

A selective history of the US that analyzes the entrenchment of de jure institutional discrimination based on race. Examines how changes in economic needs influenced the organization of labor in ways that promoted racist institutions and shaped cultural forces supporting racism.

Required readings:

Martin N. Marger. 1991. "Chapter 7, African Americans." Pp. 221-278 in Race and Ethnic Relations: American and Global Perspectives. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth Publishing Company.

Optional readings:

Wanda Rushing Edwards. 1998. Mediated Inequality: The Role of Governmental, Business, and Scientific Elites in Public Education. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, Department of Sociology, University of Tennessee-Knoxville.

Philip S. Foner. 1974. Organized Labor and the Black Worker, 1619-1973. NY: Praeger Publishers.

Melvin M. Leiman. 1993. The Political Economy of Racism: A History. London: Pluto Press.

Manning Marable. 1983. How Capitalism Underdeveloped Black America. Boston: South End Press.

Doug McAdam. 1982. Political Process and the Development of Black Insurgency, 1930-1970. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.

Gary B. Nash. 1974. Red, White, and Black: The Peoples of Early America. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall.

Gavin Wright. 1986. Old South New South: Revolutions in the Southern Economy Since the Civil War. NY: Basic Books.

Howard Zinn. 1995. A People's History of the United States, 1492-Present. NY: HarperCollins Publisher, Inc. (This book is a very handy reference - it's a history from the perspective of the losers rather than the winners.)

Lecture 10: (Hastings) "Environmental Racism"

Offers a review of basic definitions on the relationship between attitudes and behavior as discussed in theories and compares those definitions with rhetorical definitions of environmental racism and with legal definitions of environmental discrimination.

I Brief review of basic definitions

A Theoretical

(O)*Champion et al., 1987. Sociology. NY: Holt, Rinehart, and Winston. Chapter 7. Pp. 150-178.

(O)*Gordon Allport.1958. The Nature of Prejudice. Garden City, NY: Doubleday Anchor.

1 Prejudice vs discrimination

Attitudes - behavior (Merton's typology on consistency of outcomes and ability to use verbal statements about behavior as predictors of actual behavior),

Behavior - attitudes (attitudes as rationalizations for actual behavior),

Attitudes - behavior dependent on structural context (Joe R. Feagin and Clairece Booher Feagin. 1986. Discrimination American Style: Institutional Racism and Sexism. 2e. Melbourne, FL: Krieger Publishing Co.)

2 Individual vs. institutional discrimination (S. Carmichael and C. Hamilton. Black Power. NY: Vintage, 1967.)

3 Intended vs unintended racism/discrimination (Historical argument on decision-making and action.)

4 Evidence of intention vs. distributional differences (demographic studies of residential segregation)

B Rhetorical (Assumes distributional differences by race are prima facie evidence of discrimination and indirect proof of prejudice rooted in historical decisions made when institutional arrangements were developed or reflections of unintentional prejudice. That such differences obtain is presumed evidence of unintended racism.) Definition serves political agenda for activists, but confounds theoretical distinctions argued by academicians and lawyers.

(O)*Robert D. Bullard. 1993. "Anatomy of environmental racism." In The Theory and Practice of Environmental Justice. Pp. 25-35.

(R)*Robert D. Bullard. 1994. "Symposium: The legacy of American apartheid and environmental racism." St. John's Journal of Legal Commentary 9; 445.

(R)*Michel Gelobter. 1994. "The meaning of urban environmental justice." Fordham Urban Law Journal. 21:841.

C Legal (Causation)

Environmental racism generally includes the following points: (1) disproportionate exposure based on race, income, or race and income, (2) feelings of disproportionate exposure, (3) disproportionate risks and burdens, (4) criterial of intent and harm meeting legal standard of discriminatory effect, and (5) disproportionate benefits of policy-distributed through society.

Exposure includes notion of timing of effects-immediate acute vs long term cumulative.

Environmental risks include: work place hazards (accidents, exposure to petro-chemicals, heavy metals, radioactivity, or agricultural pesticides), nutritional disadvantages (contaminated water and food, from sewage, chemicals [herbicides and pesticides]), air pollution, dual standard of medicine (health status), and inequities in insurance coverage.

(O)*Sheila Foster. 1993. "Race(ial) matters: The quest for environmental justice." Ecology Law Quarterly 20: 721-753.

1 Differential risk must be established.

2 Intent must be established.

3 Differential risk of harm must be established.

(R)*Vicki Been. 1994. "Essays on environmental justice: Market dynamics and siting of LULUs: Questions to raise in the classroom about existing research." West Virginia Law Review 96 (Summer): 1069.(LULU broadens notion of environmental risk as defined above. LULUs include: garbage dumps, hazardous waste sites, landfills, incinerators, smelters, paper mills, chemical plants. Facilities that provide service or house stigmatized population subgroups (prisoners, ex-cons, drug addicts, high risk patients-lepers, criminally insane.)

4 Differential harm must be causally proved. (Physic's model): The status of case studies, correlation, and multiple regression strategies

(R)*Terence J. Center, Warren Kriesel, and Andrew G. Keeler. 1996. "Environmental justice and toxic releases: Establishing evidence of discriminatory effect based on race and not income." Wisconsin Environmental Law Journal 3 (Summer): 119.

(R)*Culhane, John G. 1997. "Commentary: The emperor has no causation: Exposing a judicial misconstruction of science. Widener Law Symposium Journal (Fall): 185-204.

5 Is it race? Or class? Or both? Is it something else?

(O)Lynn E. Blais. "Environmental racism reconsidered." North Carolina Law Review 75: 75. (Addresses siting due political and economic forces.)

(O)<SUPERFUND-FL-Waste sites> Paul Stretesky and Michael J. Hogan. 1998. "Environmental justice: An analysis of superfund sites in Florida." Social Problems 45,2: 268-287. (Blacks and Hispanics more likely to live near superfund hazardous waste sites. Income and poverty do not predict location of sites. Association is increasing over time.)

(R)*<BOSTON-SUPERFUND=Waste treatment sites> Eric J. Krieg. 1995. "A socio-historical interpretation of toxic waste sites: The case of Greater Boston." American Journal of Economics and Sociology 54,1 (Jan.): 1-14. (Race associated with waste site in areas with long history of industrial activity, waste site distribution not equal across region; class more Bly associated with waste site frequence in recently industrialized areas than in areas with long history of industrial activity.)

(O)<SUPERFUND-IND> Timothy Maher. 1998. "Environmental oppression: Who is targeted for toxic exposure?" Journal of Black Studies 28,3 (January): 357-367.

Note - for problems with TRI data see Szasz, p.105.

(O)<TRI>Glynis Daniels and Samantha Friedman. 1999. "Spatial inequality and the distribution of industrial toxic releases: Evidence from the 1990 TRI." Social Science Quarterly 80,2 (June): 244-262.

<LA-TRI>*Andrew Szasz, Michael Meuser, Hal Aronson, Hiroshi Fukurai. 1993. "The demographics of proximity to toxic releases: The case of Los Angeles County." Paper Presented at the 1993 ASA meetings, Miami, Florida.

(O)<LA-Waste treatment sites> J. Tome Boer, Manuel Pastor, Jr., James L. Sadd, Lori D. Snyder. 1997. "Is there environmental racism" The demographics of hazardous waste in Los Angeles County." Social Science Quarterly 78,4: 793-810. (Waste treatment sites located in industrial areas inhabited by working class people of color. Siting curvilinear with income.)

(R)<TRI-MA and WASTE SITE-method>/*Eric J. Krieg. 1998. "Methodological considerations in the study of toxic waste hazards." Social Science Journal 35,2 (April): 191-201.(What are differences in findings due to different operationalization of dependent variables-waste site vs TRI?)

Lecture 11: (Mix) "Review of Statistical Studies"

Examines and categorizes the statistical studies in environmental racism, emphasizing various operationalizations of dependent and independent variables. Discusses role of race, of class, and race X class in siting decisions.

6 Review of statistical studies by Tamara Mix -

a Main effects only

b Coaction (interaction)

(R)*Charles Lee. 1992. Chapter 2. "Toxic waste and race in the United States." In Race and the Incidence of Environmental Hazards: A Time for Discourse Pp. 10-27 Bunyan Bryant and Paul Mohai. Eds. Westview Press. Boulder, CO. (Review of findings on United Church of Christ study.)

(R)<method>*Paul Mohai and Bunyan Bryant. 1992. "Chapter 13-Environmental racism: Reviewing the evidence." Pp. 163-176 in Race and the Incidence of Environmental Hazards: A Time for Discourse. Bunyan Bryant and Paul Mohai. Eds. Westview Press. Boulder, CO.

(Reviews 15 correlational studies on race and income and pollution. Finds income inequitable in every study but 1. When both race and income studied, race more Bly correlated.)

R)<TRI-MICHIGAN>/*Liam Downey. 1998. "Environmental injustice: Is race or income a better predictor?" Social Science Quarterly 79,4 (December): 766-778.

(O)<method> B Goldman. 1994. Not Just Prosperity: Achieving Sustainability with Environmental Justice. Washington, D.C.: National Wildlife Federation. (Reviews 64 stuudies)

(O)<method>*Rae Zimmerman. 1994. "Issues of classification in environmental equity: How we manage is how we measure." Fordham Urban Law Journal 21 (Spring): 664.

(O)/*Laura Pulido. 1996. "A critical review of the methodology of environmental racism research." Antipode 28,2 (April): 142-159. (Discusses race and class as "projects"-subtext of discourse. Racism is abnormality that must be eliminated after proof of intent and evidence of discrimination and harm provided. Racist society claims monolithic nonwhites object of discrimination downplays class divisions, seeks to unite and mobilize nonwhites against whites. Also discusses historical evolution of local land use patterns which occurred- first blacks lived in area then targeted for siting waste site: second hazard present and market forces blacks and poor or working class to live near site.)

(O)Adam S. Weinberg. 1998. "The environmental justice debate: A commentary on methodological issues and practical concerns." Sociological Forum 13,1 (March): 25-32.

Lecture 12: (Hastings) "The Siting Process"

Discusses who the decision-makers are in siting a noxious facility. Examines the factors driving the decision to site: historical patterns of land use, social status of host community, economic forces, legal constraints and anticipated resistance. Discusses risk differentials in siting, speed of clean-up of toxic site, and in corporate fines imposed.

A. Who are the decision makers? Govt, corporations, individuals.

(R)*Gloria E. Helfand and James L. Peyton. 1999. "A conceptual model of environmental justice." Social Science Quarterly 80,1 (March) 68-83.

B. What drives decisions to site?

1. Historical patterns of land use-agricultural vs industrial; rural, suburban, urban; high vs low density population. Where do poor, outcastes, shunned bottom rung on hierarchies reside? Remember place or work and place of residence only were separated during industrial revolution. Where they work usually occupations others avoid and or prohibited by religion, custom or law from doing. Preindustrial cities and medieval cities as well as modern industrial cities have functionally classified areas based on occupation and mode of production.

(R)<rural sites-emissions>*Maurie J. Cohen. 1997. "The spatial distribution of toxic chemical emissions: Implications for non-metropolitan areas." Society and Natural Resources 10: 17-41. (Increased exposure to risk as function of increased siting of manufacturing in rural communities.)

<LA-Waste treatment sites> J. Tome Boer, Manuel Pastor, Jr., James L. Sadd, Lori D. Snyder. 1997. "Is there environmental racism" The demographics of hazardous waste in Los Angeles County." Social Science Quarterly 78,4: 793-810. (Waste treatment sites located in industrial areas inhabited by working class people of color. Siting curvilinear with income.)

*<BOSTON-SUPERFUND=Waste treatment sites> Eric J. Krieg. 1995. "A socio-historical interpretation of toxic waste sites: The case of Greater Boston." American Journal of Economics and Sociology 54,1 (Jan.): 1-14. (Race associated with waste site in areas with long history of industrial activity, waste site distribution not equal across region; class more Bly associated with waste site frequence in recently industrialized areas than in areas with long history of industrial activity.)

(O)*John A. Hird and Michael Reese. 1998. "The distribution of environmental quality: An empirical analysis." Social Science Quarterly 79,4 (December): 694-716. (Race and ethnicity Bly associated with lack of environmental quality, high pollution levels; also between population density and manufacturing. )

(R)*Sheila Foster. 1998. "Justice from the ground up: Distributive inequities, grassroots resistance, and the transformative politics of the environmental justice movement." California Law Review 86 (July): 775. Stuff on Chester, PA. (History of industrial activity and dumping. Discusses targeting of blacks. Systematic corruption of judicial system by mob. Strategies used to mobilize grassroots action.)

2. Status-rich vs poor; majority vs minority; ethnicity

(R)*Robert D. Bullard. 1983. "Solid waste sites and the black Houston community." Sociological Inquiry 53 (23): 273-288. (Case study on 4 sites in Houston.)

(O)*Robert D. Bullard and Beverly Hendrix Wright. 1986-87. "Blacks and the environment." Humboldt Journal of Social Relations 14: 1-2 (Fall/Winter and Spring/Summer): 165-184.

(O)*Robert D. Bullard and Beverly H. Wright. 1989. "Toxic waste and the African American Community" The Urban League Review 13,1-2: 67-75. (Overview of disproportionate concentration of waste sites in black and hsipanci communities esp, southern black belt.)

(O)*Robert D. Bullard. 1990. "Ecological inequities and the New South: Black communities under siege." Journal of Ethnic Studies 17,4: 101-113.

(R)*Harvey L. White. 1992. "Chapter 10-Hazardous waste incineration and minority communities." Pp. 126-139 in Race and the Incidence of Environmental Hazards: A Time for Discourse. Bunyan Bryant and Paul Mohai. Eds. Westview Press. Boulder, CO

(O)*Conner Bailey and Charles E. Faupel. 1992. "Chapter 11-Environmentalism and civil rights in Sumter County, Alabama." Pp. 14-152 in Race and the Incidence of Environmental Hazards: A Time for Discourse. Bunyan Bryant and Paul Mohai. Eds. Westview Press. Boulder, CO.

3. Economics. Market forces. (1) Cost of land pre-post siting, social and income differences in selective in-migration to site as well as selective out-migration from site; (2) changes in density and dispersion of area after siting, (3) proximity measures and models for assessing distance from contaminating source: linear, gradient, line of sight, hot spots, non-point source.

(R)*Been, Vicki. 1994. "Locally undesirable land uses in minority neighborhoods: Disproportionate siting or market dynamics? Yale Law Journal 103: 1383-1421. Reexamines Bullards study and finds 8 of 9 solid waste dumps are located in neighborhoods with higher proportions than rest of city. National surveys don't produce uniform finding in all locations. Claim that aggregate studies fail to capture local variations due to size of unit of analysis.) (LEXUS NEXUS)

4 Legal constraints. Anticipated resistance.

D What are the differentials in actual risk (mortality, morbidity), presumed exposure to risk (proximity to hazard), and perceived exposure to risk (environmental illness)?

(R)*Andrew Szasz and Michael Meuser. 2000. "Unintended, Inexorable: The production of environmental inequalities in Santa Clara County, California." American Behavioral Scientist 43,4 (Jan.): 602-632. (Entire volume is on environmental issues.)

<LA-TRI>*Andrew Szasz, Michael Meuser, Hal Aronson, Hiroshi Fukurai. 1993. "The demographics of proximity to toxic releases: The case of Los Angeles County." Paper Presented at the 1993 ASA meetings, Miami, Florida.

(R)<demographics-waste sites>*Douglas L. Anderton, Andy B. Anderson, Peter H. Rossi, John Michael Oates, Michael R. Fraser, Eleanor W. Weber, and Edwards J. Calabrese. 1994. "Hazardous waste facilities: 'Environmental equity' issues in metropolitan areas." Evaluation Review 18,2: 123-140.Uses presence of TSDFs as exposure to pollution to examine correlation between race and income with exposure. Finds income and being Latino correlate, but not being black.)

(R)<demographics>*Douglas L. Anderton, Andy B. Anderson, John Michael Oakes, and Michael R. Fraser. 1994. "Environmental Equity: The demographics of dumping." Demography 31,2: 229-248. (No difference by race in census tracts with TSDFs but notes ring effect of disadvantaged socioeconomic blacks in tracts around industrial tracts with TSDFs.) <Above article

(NA)<demographics>*Pamela Davidson and Douglas L. Anderton. 1998. "Demographics of dumping II: A national environmental equity survey and the distribution of hazardous materials handlers." PAA. (National survey of commercial handlers of hazardous waste materials. Non-minority of working class neighborhoods have such sites. Subgroup of facilities located in rural black and urban Hispanic neighborhoods)

(O)*Benjamin A. Goldman. 1996. "What is the future of environmental justice?" Antipode 28,2: 122-141.(Overview of increasing schism in class inequalities as shift occurred from nation-state to global economic policies. Speaks of major shifts needed in organizing effective social movement integrating people of color with skidding middle class whites. Critical section on U Mass studies.)

(O)<method>*Paul Mohai. 1995. "Methodological issues: The demographics of dumping revisited: Examining the impact of alternative methodologies in environmental justice research." Virginia Environmental Law Journal 14 (Summer): 615.

(O)*James T. Hamilton. 1995. "Testing for environmental racism: Prejudice, profits, political power?" Journal of Policy Analysis and Management 14, 1: 107-132. (Zip codes.)

(R)<FL-TRI>*Philip H. Pollock, III and M. Elliot Vittas. 1995. "Who bears the burdens of environmental pollution? Race, ethnicity, and environmental equity in Florida." Social Science Quarterly 76, 2: 294-309.(Examines logarithmic function of distance from site of toxic release and race and Latinos for sample census blocks in Florida communities.)

(R)<waste sites>*Been, Vicki. 1995. "Analyzing evidence of environmental justice." Journal of Land Use and Environmental Law 11,1: 1-36. (No difference in %age blacks in host and non-host tracts. Higher the wealth and social class, the fewer the sites.)

Section (Optional)

Tracy Yandle and Dudley Burton. 1996. "Reexamining environmental justice: A statistical analysis of historical hazardous waste landfill siting patterns in metropolitan Texas." Social Science Quarterly 77,3: 477-492. (Methodologically weak, Critiques are devastating.)

Robert D. Bullard. 1996. "Environmental justice: It's more than waste facility siting." Social Science Quarterly 77,3: 493-499.

Paul Mohai. 1996. "Environmental justice analytic justice? Reexaming historical hazardous waste landfill siting patterns in metropolitan Texas." Social Science Quarterly 77,3: 500-507.

Douglas L. Anderton. 1996. "Methodological issues in the spatiotemporal analysis of environmental equity. Social Science Quarterly 77,3: 508-515.

Jack N. Barkenbus, Jean H. Peretz, Jonathan D. Rubin. 1996. "More on the agenda." Social Science Quarterly 77,3: 615-519.

Rejoinder.

Tracy Yandle and Dudley Burton. 1996. "Methodological approaches to environmental justice: A rejoinder." Social Science Quarterly 77,3: 520-527.

(R)*Vicki Been and Francis Gupta. 1997. "Coming to the nuisance or going to the barrios? A longitudinal analysis of environmental justice claims. Ecology Law Quarterly 1-56.

(R)Evan J. Ringquist. 1997. "Equity and the distribution of environmental risk: The case of TRI facilities." Social Science Quarterly 78,4: 811-829.

(O)*J.E. Kelsall, J.M. Samet, S.L. Zeger, and J. Xu. 1997. "Air pollution and mortality in Philadelphia, 1974-1988." American Journal of Epidemiology 146,9: 750-762.

<SUPERFUND-FL-Waste sites>*Paul Stretesky and Michael J. Hogan. 1998. "Environmental justice: An analysis of superfund sites in Florida." Social Problems 45,2: 268-287. (Blacks and Hispanics more likely to live near superfund hazardous waste sites. Income and poverty do not predict location of sites. Association is increasing over time. Political power is needed to get site listed as area requiring cleanup. Are blacks and Latinos more powerful now than in the past in United States?)

Speed of clean-up and fines Distribution of benefits. .

(R)*Marianne Lavelle and Marcia A. Coyle. 1992. "Unequal protection: The racial divide in environmental law." Revision of National Law Journal 21 (September). (Shows amount to penalties against pollution violators in minority areas is less than for same in largely white areas: pace of clean-up in minority areas is slower than in white areas.)

(O)<SUPERFUND>*John A. Hird. 1993. "Environmental policy and equity: The case of Superfund." Journal of Policy Analysis and Management 12,2: 323-343. (Finds no link between pace of site clean-up and host county's socioeconomic characteristics.)

(R)*Rae Zimmerman. 1993. "Social equity and environmental risk." Risk Analysis 13,6: 649-666.

(R)*Douglas L. Anderton, John Michael Oakes, and Karla L. Egan. 1997. "Environmental equity in Superfund: Demographics of the discovery and prioritization of abandoned toxic sites." Evaluation Review 21,1: 3-26.

(O)*Michael Gelobter. 1992. "Chapter 5-Toward a model of 'environmental discrimination.'" Pp. 64-81 in Race and the Incidence of Environmental Hazards: a Time for Discourse. Bunyan Bryant and Paul Mohai. Eds. Westview Press. Boulder, CO.

(R)*Andrew Szasz and Michael Meuser. 1997. "Environmental inequalities: Literature review and proposals for new directions in research and theory." Current Sociology 45,3 (July): 99-120. (Excellent overview of literature.)

Lecture 13: (Cable) "Institutional Discrimination in Housing"

Application of Feagin and Feagin's institutional discrimination framework to housing. Discussion of role of housing discrimination in discrimination in other social institutions. Relevance for environmental racism.

Required readings:

Joe R. Feagin and Clairece Booher Feagin. 1986. Discrimination American Style: Institutional Racism and Sexism. 2e. Melbourne, FL: Krieger Publishing Co.

Optional readings:

None

Lecture 14: (Hastings) "Science, Risk, and Environmental Illness"

Examination of the medical model of harm and the role of expert testimony in litigation. Examination of environmental illness, comparing perceptions of scientists with those of popular or folk epidemiologists. Identifies problems in proving harm and intent to harm in court.

I What is the medical model and how is it used to demonstrate harm?

Role of expert testimony historically. Logic of certainty.

Presumably legitimacy of science held sway over that of religion and common sense knowledge. Science stood in opposition of vested interests of establishment. Use of learned, MDs, scientists, and expert witnesses by dint of experience to prove cause in criminal and civil cases.

Role of expert testimony today. Logic of uncertainty. 4 types of uncertainty , see Klapp intro.

People recognize science is no longer the bastion of truth, objective, and value free <pure>, but rather is shaped by economic, political, and religious ideologies. It is value-laden and no longer sacrosanct. Judges increasingly are skeptical about the value of expert testimony. Juries often vote on normative and/or emotional bases rather than heed expert testimony of scientist. This conflict often gets played out in cases claiming environmental illness, multiple chemical sensitivity when folk or lay epidemiology seems to account for illness, insults, and death, yet canons of scientific explanation do not.

II What is environmental illness? How does folk epidemiology account for harm?

(R)Phil Brown. "The popular epidemiology approach to toxic waste contamination." Xerox pp. 133-155.

(R)Steve Kroll-Smith and H. Hugh Floyd. date? Bodies in Protest.place: pub. Pp.17-67, 163-182.

(R)Phil Brown and Edwin J. Mikkelson.1990. No Safe Place. Berkeley. University of California Press, 1990. Pp.125-163 (Popular epidemiology).

How do you resolve the conflict between science and folk epidemiology?

(O)David V. Bates. 1994. Environmental Risks and Public Policy: Decision Making in Free Societies. Seattle. University of Washington Press.

(O)*Michael K. Heiman. 1997. "Science by the people: Grassroots environmental monitoring and the debate over scientific enterprise." Reprinted form Journal of Planning Research Education. Pp. 133-145. In Living with Industry, Coping with Chemicals. Environmental Movements and Expert Knowledge. Robert O. Washington and Joyce N. Levine. Eds. University of New Orleans. College of Urban and Public Affairs. September.

(O)*Margot W. Garcia. 1997. "Science and the people: A response to science by the people. Pp. 147-149. In Living with Industry, Coping with Chemicals. Environmental Movements and Expert Knowledge. Robert O. Washington and Joyce N. Levine. Eds. University of New Orleans. College of Urban and Public Affairs. September.

(O)*Michael K. Heiman. 1997. "Ours is not to question why, ours is just to quantify: A response." Pp. 151-154. In Living with Industry, Coping with Chemicals. Environmental Movements and Expert Knowledge. Robert O. Washington and Joyce N. Levine. Eds. University of New Orleans. College of Urban and Public Affairs. September.

(R)*Stephen R. Couch and Steve Kroll-Smith. 1997. "Environmental movements and expert knowledge: Evidence for a new populism." Pp. 1`55-174. In Living with Industry, Coping with Chemicals. Environmental Movements and Expert Knowledge. Robert O. Washington and Joyce N. Levine. Eds. University of New Orleans. College of Urban and Public Affairs. September.

What strategy works best in court for arguing intent and harm? Try under: Select one reading under A, B, C, and D. (See Hastings for a copy.)

A. Civil rights legislation or EPA Title VI

*Diane Schwartz. 1997. "Environmental racism: Using legal and social means to achieve environmental justice." Journal of Environmental Law and Litigation 12: 409.

*Kelli E. Reddic and Clydia J. Cuyenkendall. 1995. "Environmental discrimination based on race or poverty." Thurgood Marshall Law Review 21: 155.

*Jill E. Evans. 1998. "Challenging the racism in environmental racism. Redefining the concept of intent." Arizona Law Review 40 (Winter): 1219.

*Bradford C. Mank. 1999. "Is there a private cause of action under EPA's Title VI regulations? The need to empower environmental justice." Columbia Journal of Environmental Law 24:1.

B. NEPA or SEPA

*Peter L. Reich. 1992. "Greening the ghetto: A theory of environmental race discrimination." Kansas Law Review 4 (Winter): 272.

C. Occupational hazards legislation

Risk assessment - Models for risk, quantitative vs perception, cost benefit, hazards, hypothetical scenarios, role of public
*Robert R. Kuehn. 1996. "The environmental justice implications of quantitative risk assessment." University of Illinois Law Review: 103.

*Frank B. Cross. 1994. "The public role risk control." Environmental Law 21 (Summer): 888.

*James S. Freeman and Rachel D. Godsil. 1994. "The question of risk: Incorporating community perception into environmental risk assessments." Fordham Urban Law Journal 21 (Spring): 547.

Kathy Bunting. 1995. "Risk assessment and environmental justice: A critique of ther current legal framework and suggestions for the future." Buffalo Environmental Law Journal (Fall) 3:129.

Lecture 15: (Cable) "The Failure of Environmental Policy"

Provides a quick introduction to public policy in general and environmental policy in particular. Analyzes the failure of environmental policy as a product of the conflicting roles of the modern liberal democratic state. Discusses the history of the US Environmental Movement and its role in environmental policy.

Required readings:

Sherry Cable and Michael Benson. 1993. "Acting locally: Environmental injustice and the emergence of grass-roots environmental organizations." Social Problems 40,4 (November): 464-477.

Riley E. Dunlap and Angela G. Mertig. 1992. American Environmentalism: The US Environmental Movement, 1970-1990. Washington, D.C.: Taylor and Francis.

Daniel J. Fiorino. 1989. "Environmental risk and democratic process: A critical review." Columbia Journal of Environmental Law 14,501:503-547.

Charles L. Harper. 1996. "Chapter 4, Global climate change: Uncertainty, risk, and policy" and "Chapter 9, Transforming structures: Markets, politics, and policy." Pp. 109-148 and pp. 335-364 in Environment and Society: Human Perspectives on Environmental Issues. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall.

Robert C. Paehlke. 1994. "Environmental values and public policy." Pp. 349-368 in N. Vig and M. Kraft (eds.) Environmental Policy in the 1990s: Toward a New Agenda. 2e. Washington, D.C.: Congressional Quarterly Press.

Thomas Dietz, Paul C. Stern, and Robert W. Rycroft. 1989. "Definitions of conflict and the legitimation of resources: The case of environmental risk." Sociological Forum 4,1: 47-70.

Optional readings:

Clinton J. Andrews. 1998. "Public policy and the geography of US environmentalism." Social Science Quarterly 79,1 (March): 55-73.

Susan J. Buck. 1996. Understanding Environmental Administraiton and Law. 2e. Washington, D.C.: Island Press.

Robert J. Brulle. 1996. "Environmental discourse and social movement organizations: A historical and rhetorical perspective on the development of US environmental organizations." Sociological Inquiry 66,1(February): 58-83.

Sherry Cable and Charles Cable. 1995. Environmental Problems/Grassroots Solutions: The Politics of Grassroots Environmental Conflict. NY: St. Martin's Press.

Ray Clark and Larry Canter (eds.). 1997. Environmental Policy and NEPA: Past, Present, and Future. Boca Raton, FL: St. Lucie Press.

Giovanna Di Chiro. 1992. "Defining environmental justice: Women's voices and grassroots politics." Socialist Review 22,4 (October-December): 93-129.

Jack Doyle. 1992. "Hold the applause: A case study of corporate environmentalism." The Ecologist 22,3 (May/June): 84-90.

Steve Fox. 1991. Toxic Work: Women Workers at GRE Lenkurt. Philadelphia: Temple University Press.

Kenneth A. Gould, Adam S. Weinberg, and Allan Schnaiberg. 1993. "Legitimating impotence: Pyrrhic victories of the modern environmental movement." Qualitative Sociology 16,3: 207-246.

John Hodges-Copple. 1987. "State roles in siting hazardous waste facilities." Forum for Applied Research and Public Policy Fall: 78-88.

Celene Krauss. 1993. "Women and toxic waste protests: Race, class and gender as resources of resistance." Qualitative Sociology 16,3: 247-262.

Frances M. Lynn and Jack D. Kartez. 1994. "Environmental democracy in action: The Toxics Release Inventory." Environmental Management 18,4: 511-521.

Dorothy Nelkin and Michael S. Brown. 1984. Workers At Risk: Voices from the Workplace. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.

Peter C. Yeager. 1987. "Structural bias in regulatory law enforcement: The case of the US Environmental Protection Agency." Social Problems 34,4: 330-344.

Lecture 16: (Cable) "A Case Study of Environmental Racism: Oak Ridge and the Scarboro Community"

Takes an historical approach in explaining present environmental racism in Oak Ridge. Discusses the relevance of the debate over the significance of race in American life.

Required readings:

Andrew Hurley. 1995. Environmental Inequalities: Class, Race, and Industrial Pollution in Gary, Indiana, 1945-1980. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press.

Joe R. Feagin. 1991. "The continuing significance of race: Antiblack discrimination in public places." American Sociological Review 56 (February): 101-116.

Optional readings:

Charles Willie. 1983. Race, Ethnicity, and Socioeconomic Status. Bayside: General Hall.

William J. Wilson. 1978. The Declining Significance of Race. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.

William J. Wilson. 1987. The Truly Disadvantaged: The Inner City, the Underclass, and Public Policy. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.

Lecture 17:(Mix) "Environmental Equity and Environmental Justice"

What is meant by fairness in the distribution of risk? What is meant by fairness in the distribution of benefit? Is fairness pragmatically possible?

Required readings:

Optional readings:

(O)*Peter S. Wenz. 1988. Environmental Justice. Albany: SUNY Press.

(R)*Vicki Been. 1993. "What's fairness got to do with it? Environmental Justice and siting of locally undesirable land uses." Cornell Law Review 78 (Sept.): 1001-

(O)*Sheila Foster. 1998. "Justice from the ground up: Distributive inequities, grassroots resistance, and the transformative politics of the environmental justice movement." California Law Review 86 (July): 775.

(O)*Marc R. Poirer. 1994. "Essays on environmental justice: Environmental justice, racism, equity: Can we talk?" West Virginia Law Review 96 (Summer): 1083-

(R)*Troy W. Hartley. 1995. "Environmental justice: An environmental civil rights value acceptable to all world views." Environmental Ethics 17,3: 277-289.

Roderick Frazier Nash. The Rights of Nature: A History of Environmental Ethics. Madison: University of Wisconsin Press.

Bunyan Bryant. 1995. "Issues and potential policies and solutions for environmental justice: An overview." Pp. 8-34 in B. Bryant (ed.) Environmental Justice: Issues, Policies, and Solutions. Washington, D.C.: Island Press.

Joseph R. Des Jardins. 1997. Environmental Ethics: An Introduction to Environmental Philosophy. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth Publishing.

Lecture 18: (Cable) "Environmental Justice and National Security"

Brings in a global perspective of environmental racism and environmental justice. Analyzes the role of environmental justice in national security.

Required readings:

Francis O. Adeola. 1996. "Environmental contamination, public hygiene, and human health concerns in the Third World: The case of Nigerian environmentalism." Environment and Behavior 28,5 (September): 614-646.

Michael Renner. 1996. Fighting For Survival: Environmental Decline, Social Conflict, and the New Age of Insecurity. NY: W.W. Norton and Company.

Optional readings:

Gareth Porter and Janet Welsh Brown. 1996. Global Environmental Politics. 2e. Boulder: Westview Press.

Paul Wapner. 1996: Environmental Activism and World Civic Politics. Albany: SUNY Press.

Hussein H. Soliman. 1998. "Environmental crisis in a Third World country: Policy analysis of the Egyptian experience." Social Development Issues 20,2: 53-66.

Donald T. Wells. 1996. Environmental Policy: A Global perspective for the Twenty-First Century. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall.

Links to Courses Taught:

Sociology of the Family-Only available on request

Sociology of Sport

Introduction to Research Methods-Only available on request

Population Problems

Demographic Techniques-To obtain access to exercise answers you will require passwords

Seminar in Research Methods (with Suzanne Kurth)-Only available on request

Advanced Topics in Energy, Environment, and Natural Resources: Inequalities in Environmental Risk (with Sherry Cable)-Many of the readings provide background for issues addressed in Soc 400

Academic Resume