Lecture 8-Urban Problems and Legal Solutions

Grass is always greener on the other side of the fence.
Within western civilization a tension between urb and hinterland, city and country, civilization and nature historically obtains. Densely populated settlements relative to less densely populated settlements are viewed as more likely to be fraught with moral, social, environmental, and esthetic problems. Urbs by dint of their human numbers require more complex and formalized social organizations to meet demands for providing goods and services to ensure physical survival. A centralized government in needed to maintain oversight responsibilities in coordination of activities and to control over the populous and defend the political infrastructure. Urban settlements with their more heterogeneous populations as well as greater number of cultures offer individuals more diversity in life styles, technologies, and codes of morality. Choice between traditional and new ways of thinking and doing threatens the status quo, and often is deemed as bad, immoral, or sinful. Life in the hinterland, country, or closer to Nature is deemed good (or Godly), and preferable.

Rural nostalgia first expressed by Greeks urban dwellers who formerly lived in rural areas and missed the beauty, quiet, and clean air. Romantization of Nature.

Wealthy Romans and later magnates of capitalism (Vanderbilts, Rockerfellers, Whites) turned to the country or suburbs  as an escape from urban problems. Summered by the sea. Traveled for relief from the din of urban life.

Point counterpoint. (See population notes on hinterland, urbs, and suburbs).

Urban life in Greece, Rome, and Medieval Europe had more problems than rural life. Provision of food and feeding city population required meat numerous cattle, sheep's, goats, chickens, geese, wild game and fowl and fish daily as well as vegetables, fruit, olive oil, wine, beer, and breads. These products were either produced locally or were carted into markets for sale and barter.

Only paved roads (crushed rock or cobblestones, or brick) were in major cities proper or on a highway system constructed by Roman army and contractors. The roads usually were muddy, filled with ruts, and rocks difficult for foot traffic and animal traffic. The roads into the city were clogged with traffic.

Stalls were set up not only in market places by along the highway. Animals were slaughtered and prepared for sale. A major problem was disposal of animal waste (offal, urine, and dung) much less human waste and kitchen waste.

Roman codes were effected to limit days of agriculture trade on roadways, so that they could be cleaned. Hours of business were limited from sunrise to two hours before sunset. Streets were unlit at night. Horse and cart traffic were limited to specific hours to limit congestion.

Timber, lumber, bricks, pottery, minerals, metals were transported to city for construction, heat, metallurgy and manufacturing.

Obtaining clean and potable water was problematic. Some sources was clear and relatively uncontaminated. Other sources were contaminated and water was used for tanning, mining, and agriculture. Water sources often were used up by population pressure. Wells were dug, and aqueducts were built to conduct water from hills to city. Pipes ran water from aqueduct to houses.

Streams were used for transport and removal of human waste, kitchen waste, animal waste. Free flow of water for drinking and water traffic was problematic as channels were often unobstructed by filth, animal offal, dead human and animal bodies. Codes were effected to ensure cleanup of channels, cesspools, and latrines. Waste was to be dumped in mid stream and  to catch ebb tide.

Corpse were buried in catacombs, tombs, charnel pits. In some cultures cremation was used.

Fire was also a danger necessitating development of fire brigades. Fires quickly spread given the pattern of dense building construction. Fires meant loss of life, loss of property, heavy pressure on timber supplies, given the millions of board feet of lumber needed to replace buildings.

Poor construction often resulted in building collapses with loss of life. Construction codes were passed to make builders responsible for safe structures, to limit height of buildings, to guarantee access to sunlight so people conduct daily business with benefit of sunlight.

Clean air was problematic dust, redolent odors, dense smoke "heavy heaven", noxious gases, and pollutants).

City was noisy from traffic, sounds of construction, metal workers, teachers, and traders hawking their wares.

Crime, vandalism, street prostitution, alcoholism were rampant.

Vermin and disease were omnipresent.

Maintenance of green spaces for rest and recreation and gaming and hunting, veneration of the gods and goddesses. Control of resources by kings for generation of wealth -- forest, minerals, water.

Location of cities. Intersection of trade routes. Breaks in transportation. Fortifiable positions some walled, others not. Favorable resources.

City shapes (radial and rectangular) (some followed standardized plats Roman cities in Acosta, Italy and Thamugali, Algeria or Roman military encampments), Others did not (Rome). Planned buildings site dependent on results of divination, interpretation of dreams or oracles or ascertaining whether building were harmonious with topography, prevailing winds, or direction of sunshine. Principles of development: location of activities economic competition of land use vs sacred areas.

City had sacred, public, and private areas; rural areas designated as cultivated, grazing, woodlands, or wilderness.

For discussion of legal solutions See Johnson. See Zupko.

(Required) Robinson, O. F. 1992. Ancient Rome: City Planning and Administration. London: Routledge. pp. 59-79.