Lecture 5- Agricultural Production and Decline
Since the agricultural revolution social commentators have noted that production falls as
soil fecundity wanes. Declining productivity meant inability of farmers to feed families
acute starvation or chronic malnutrition, inability to generate surplus income to have
more children or if single, to enter wedlock and start families.
(Crop shortages, failures, and increased peasant taxation often precipitated peasant revolts
against the landed aristocracy.) Farmers abandoned fields and migrate searching new lands.
This pattern of farm and move accounts for the expansion of settlement pattern from old to new
territories. Note the long held presumption that peasant communities had relative stationary
populations with little in- or out-migration was fallacious (as demonstrated by the research of
historical demographers. Note length of land tenure varied depending on type of soil, types of
crops grown, and availability of water and weather.
- Some early writers noted the value of manure in replenishing the soil, debating the relative merits
of sheep, goat, cattle, horse, pigeon and human dung. (Note contraceptive qualities of elephant
versus crocodile dung debated in Egyptian papyri.)
- Plowing back of weeds oldest technique for replenishing soil.
Composting of lupine, bean, vetch plowed under was know and called green manure.
See paragraph on historical uses of green manure.
McRae and Mehuys.1985.
"The effect of green manuring on the physical properties of temperate area soils."
Advances in Soil Science 3: 71-94.
- Liming the soil was accomplished using limestone, chalk, burnt marble, and marl -- see Hughes p. 139.
- Two - crop rotation was practiced (legumes vs. other).
- Ancients recognized seed selection as technique to increase yield of crop grown
versus amount of seed sow. Estimates vary for Greeks, Roman, Egyptians, Medieval, and Modern.
- Greek agriculture was more ecologically sustainable due to small acreage farms. Roman farms organized
as (ranches) latifunda stressed monoculture and overgrazing were more stressful on soil and vegetation.
- To control erosion, ditching and terracing were used in hilly terrains. To maintain such systems
was labor intensive and required constant monitoring. Any civil disturbance threatened the stability
of these systems.
- Note historical clashes between sedentary agriculture and nomadic military cultures.
- Irrigation systems in riverine culture to control flood waters. Dams, cisterns, and reservoirs
to capture rainfall or spring run-off.
Dams as Domination
- Technologies to lift water in elevation shaduf (pivoted, counterbalanced pole with bucket),
spiral Archimedean screw,
two-cylinder Ctesibian force pump, and noria.
Human Powered Water Lifters
- C. Karl Wittfogel. 1957. Oriental Despotism. Discusses the notion of hydraulic societies.
Management of the irrigation system leads to inequalities between those with technical knowledge of
how the system works and those who do not. As the becomes more extensive, so the numbers of leaders
becomes larger. As size increases so does the organizational requirement of role specialization,
a hierarchy of authority, and centralization of coordination and power. To maintain the system:
a schedule of water use must be established, maintenance of the infrastructure (canals,
control of water flow mechanisms -- lifting mechanisms water wheels, screws, pumps, dams)
and effective military to defend the government and infrastructure. Dovetails with other
notions of the origin of the state or other forms of social organization that emphasize inequalities
as developing from differences in knowledge. Sjoberg. The Preindustrial City.
Aside nature of criticisms of theory--idiographic vs. nomothetic, statistical heuristic and
statistical heuristics based on case studies.
Gimpel Chapter 2. During the Medieval Period the climate in Europe was slightly warmer by 1
to 2 degrees than earlier.
This temperature gradient expanded acreage and extended the altitude by some 200 meters in growing crops.
The development of a padded harness facilitated the transition from oxen to horses for transportation
of goods and plowing the fields. Also horses could be harnessed in strings with teams of four.
Horses could work faster. They were cheaper to feed. Horse teams could pull larger loads in
the Medieval ages than during Roman period (2500 kilograms versus 500 kilograms Theodosian Code 438).
Horses required oats, so that was added to agricultural crop production.
The development of iron horseshoes increased the work capacity of horses and made them
more efficient in military engagements.
During the Medieval Period a high wheeled plow and moldboard plow was developed which allowed
cutting deeper furrows,
plowing faster. Teams of horses using the wheel could plow more land faster.
Farmers cooperated is plowing operations, changing the plot from small squares
to larger plots that were contoured. See Lynn White Jr. pp. 151-152 on the
importance of the northern wheeled plow with colter, horizontal share, and
moldboard. See pp. 154-155 on importance of horse power for plowing.
Seed selection practices improved. For 1 bushel of seed, yields ran about 4 bushels,
marked improvement over earlier production levels.
To maintain the fecundity of the soil, a three crop/plot rotation system was introduced.
1 plot winter, 1 plot spring, 1 plot fallow. Fallow plots were manured and green-manured and plowed twice.
Field use rotated over a 3 year period. See Lynn White Jr. on importance of three
crop/three field system of rotation and increased efficiency of crop out put.
Also rediscovered use of marl for fertilizing soil.
Nutrition and diets were improved during the period. Farmers income was up. Greater social stability
among peasantry.
Major products vine, beer, and wool production. Aside on water power.
See Robinson, O. F. 1992. Ancient Rome: City Planning and Administration. London:
Routledge. pp. 130-137. and pp. 144-159.